قواعد الإملاء الإنجليزية

الإنگليزية
النطق	[]
تـُستخدم في	(انظر أدناه)
إجمالي المتكلمين	لغة أولى: 309–400 مليون لغة ثانية: 199–1,400 مليون إجمالي: 500 مليون–1.8 بليون
الترتيب	3 (الناطقون كلغة أولى) الإجمالي: 1 أو 2
عائلة لغات	هندو-أوروبية جرمانية جرمانية غربية أنگلو-فريزية الإنگليزية
نظام الكتابة	اللاتينية (التنويعة الإنگليزية)
الوضع الرسمي
لغة رسمية في	53 بلد الأمم المتحدة الاتحاد الاوروپي كومنولث الأمم مجلس اوروپا الناتو NAFTA OAS OIC PIF UKUSA
ينظمها	لا تنظيم رسمي
أكواد اللغة
ISO 639-1	en
ISO 639-2	eng
ISO 639-3	eng
البلدان حيث الإنگليزية لغة أغلبية أزرق غامق؛ البلدان حيث تكون لغة رسمية ولكنها ليست لغة أغلبية بالأزرق الفاتح. الإنگليزية هي أيضاً واحدة من اللغات الرسمية للاتحاد الاوروبي.

English orthography comprises the set of rules used when writing the English language, allowing readers and writers to associate written graphemes with the sounds of spoken English, as well as other features of the language. English's orthography includes norms for spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.

As with the orthographies of most other world languages, written English is broadly standardised. This standardisation began to develop when movable type spread to England in the late 15th century. However, unlike with most languages, there are multiple ways to spell every phoneme, and most letters also represent multiple pronunciations depending on their position in a word and the context.

This is partly due to the large number of words that have been loaned from a large number of other languages throughout the history of English, without successful attempts at complete spelling reforms, and partly due to accidents of history, such as some of the earliest mass-produced English publications being typeset by highly trained, multilingual printing compositors, who occasionally used a spelling pattern more typical for another language. For example, the word ghost was spelled gost in Middle English, until the Flemish spelling pattern was unintentionally substituted, and happened to be accepted. Most of the spelling conventions in Modern English were derived from the phonemic spelling of a variety of Middle English, and generally do not reflect the sound changes that have occurred since the late 15th century (such as the Great Vowel Shift).

Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most recognised variations being British and American spelling, and its overall uniformity helps facilitate international communication. On the other hand, it also adds to the discrepancy between the way English is written and spoken in any given location.

 وظائف الحروف

 التمثيل الفونيمي

للمزيد من المعلومات: الإملاء الصوتي

الحروف في الكتابة الإنجليزية في موضعٍ ما ضمن كلمة معينة عادةً ما يمثل فونيمة معينة. For example, at []ˈæt[] consists of 2 letters قالب:Vr and قالب:Vr, which represent [] and [], respectively.

Sequences of letters may perform this role as well as single letters. Thus, in thrash []θræʃ[], the digraph قالب:Vr (two letters) represents []. In hatch []hætʃ[], the trigraph قالب:Vr represents [].

Less commonly, a single letter can represent multiple successive sounds. The most common example is قالب:Vr, which normally represents the consonant cluster [] (for example, in tax []tæks[]).

The same letter (or sequence of letters) may be pronounced differently when occurring in different positions within a word. For instance, قالب:Vr represents [] at the end of some words (tough []tʌf[]) but not in others (plough []plaʊ[]). At the beginning of syllables, قالب:Vr is pronounced [], as in ghost []ɡoʊst[]. Conversely, ⟨gh⟩ is never pronounced [] in syllable onsets other than in inflected forms, and is almost never pronounced [] in syllable codas (the proper name Pittsburgh is an exception).

Some words contain silent letters, which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation. Examples include the قالب:Vr in talk, half, calf, etc., the قالب:Vr in two and sword, قالب:Vr as mentioned above in numerous words such as though, daughter, night, brought, and the commonly encountered [[silent e|silent قالب:Vr]] (discussed further below).

 أصل الكلمة

انظر أيضاً: Hard and soft C, Hard and soft G, Silent k, and Palatalization (phonetics)

Another type of spelling characteristic is related to word origin. For example, when representing a vowel, قالب:Vr represents the sound [] in some words borrowed from Greek (reflecting an original upsilon), whereas the letter usually representing this sound in non-Greek words is the letter قالب:Vr. Thus, myth []ˈmɪθ[] is of Greek origin, while pith []ˈpɪθ[] is a Germanic word. However, a large number of Germanic words have قالب:Vr in word-final position.

Some other examples are قالب:Vr pronounced [] (which is most commonly ⟨f⟩), and قالب:Vr pronounced [] (which is most commonly قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr). The use of these spellings for these sounds often marks words that have been borrowed from Greek.

Some researchers, such as Brengelman (1970), have suggested that, in addition to this marking of word origin, these spellings indicate a more formal level of style or register in a given text, although Rollings (2004) finds this point to be exaggerated as there would be many exceptions where a word with one of these spellings, such as قالب:Vr for [] (like telephone), could occur in an informal text.

 Homophone differentiation

Spelling may also be useful to distinguish in written language between homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings), and thus resolve potential ambiguities that would arise otherwise. However in most cases the reason for the difference is historical, and it was not introduced to resolve amibiguity.

أمثلة

• heir and air are pronounced identically in most dialects, but spelt differently.

• pain and pane are both pronounced []peɪn[] but have two different spellings of the vowel []. This arose because the two words were originally pronounced differently: pain used to be pronounced as [], with a diphthong, and pane as [], but the diphthong [] merged with the long vowel [] in pane, making pain and pane homophones (pane–pain merger). Later [] became a diphthong [].

• break and brake: (She's breaking the car vs. She's braking the car).

Nevertheless, many homophones remain that are unresolved by spelling (for example, the word bay has at least five fundamentally different meanings).

 Marking sound changes in other letters

انظر أيضاً: Silent e and Double letter

Some letters in English provide information about the pronunciation of other letters in the word. Rollings (2004) uses the term "markers" for such letters. Letters may mark different types of information.

For instance, قالب:Vr in once []ˈwʌns[] indicates that the preceding قالب:Vr is pronounced [], rather than the more common value of قالب:Vr in word-final position as the sound [], such as in attic []ˈætɪk[].

قالب:Vr also often marks an altered pronunciation of a preceding vowel. In the pair mat and mate, the قالب:Vr of mat has the value [], whereas the قالب:Vr of mate is marked by the قالب:Vr as having the value []. In this context, the قالب:Vr is not pronounced, and is referred to as a "silent e".

A single letter may even fill multiple pronunciation-marking roles simultaneously. For example, in the word ace, قالب:Vr marks not only the change of قالب:Vr from [] to [], but also of قالب:Vr from [] to []. In the word vague, قالب:Vr marks the long قالب:Vr sound, but قالب:Vr keeps the قالب:Vr hard rather than soft.

Doubled consonants usually indicate that the preceding vowel is pronounced short. For example, the doubled قالب:Vr in batted indicates that the قالب:Vr is pronounced [], while the single قالب:Vr of bated gives []. Doubled consonants only indicate any lengthening or gemination of the consonant sound itself when they come from different morphemes, as with the قالب:Vr in unnamed (un+named).

 Multiple functionality

Any given letters may have dual functions. For example, قالب:Vr in statue has a sound-representing function (representing the sound []) and a pronunciation-marking function (marking the قالب:Vr as having the value [] opposed to the value []).

 Underlying representation

Like many other alphabetic orthographies, English spelling does not represent non-contrastive phonetic sounds (that is, minor differences in pronunciation which are not used to distinguish between different words).

Although the letter قالب:Vr is pronounced by most speakers with aspiration [] at the beginning of words, this is never indicated in the spelling, and, indeed, this phonetic detail is probably not noticeable to the average native speaker not trained in phonetics.

However, unlike some orthographies, English orthography often represents a very abstract underlying representation (or morphophonemic form) of English words.

[T]he postulated underlying forms are systematically related to the conventional orthography ... and are, as is well known, related to the underlying forms of a much earlier historical stage of the language. There has, in other words, been little change in lexical representation since Middle English, and, consequently, we would expect ... that lexical representation would differ very little from dialect to dialect in Modern English ... [and] that conventional orthography is probably fairly close to optimal for all modern English dialects, as well as for the attested dialects of the past several hundred years.

In these cases, a given morpheme (i.e., a component of a word) has a fixed spelling even though it is pronounced differently in different words. An example is the past tense suffix -قالب:Vr, which may be pronounced variously as [], [], or [] (for example, pay []ˈpeɪ[], payed []ˈpeɪd[], hate []ˈheɪt[], hated []ˈheɪtᵻd[]). As it happens, these different pronunciations of -قالب:Vr can be predicted by a few phonological rules, but that is not the reason why its spelling is fixed.

Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words. For instance, photographer is derived from photograph by adding the derivational suffix -قالب:Vr. When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change largely owing to the moveable stress:

Spelling	Pronunciation
photograph	[]ˈfoʊtəɡræf[] or []ˈfoʊtəɡrɑːf[]
photographer	[]fəˈtɒɡrəfər[]
photographical	[]ˌfoʊtəˈɡræfɪkəl[]

Other examples of this type are the -قالب:Vr suffix (as in agile vs. agility, acid vs. acidity, divine vs. divinity, sane vs. sanity). See also: Trisyllabic laxing.

Another example includes words like mean []ˈmiːn[] and meant []ˈmɛnt[], where قالب:Vr is pronounced differently in the two related words. Thus, again, the orthography uses only a single spelling that corresponds to the single morphemic form rather than to the surface phonological form.

English orthography does not always provide an underlying representation; sometimes it provides an intermediate representation between the underlying form and the surface pronunciation. This is the case with the spelling of the regular plural morpheme, which is written as either -قالب:Vr (as in tat, tats and hat, hats) or -قالب:Vr (as in glass, glasses). Here, the spelling -قالب:Vr is pronounced either [] or [] (depending on the environment, e.g., tats []ˈtæts[] and tails []ˈteɪlz[]) while -قالب:Vr is usually pronounced [] (e.g. classes []). Thus, there are two different spellings that correspond to the single underlying representation |[]| of the plural suffix and the three surface forms. The spelling indicates the insertion of [] before the [] in the spelling -قالب:Vr, but does not indicate the devoiced [] distinctly from the unaffected [] in the spelling -قالب:Vr.

The abstract representation of words as indicated by the orthography can be considered advantageous since it makes etymological relationships more apparent to English readers. This makes writing English more complex, but arguably makes reading English more efficient. However, very abstract underlying representations, such as that of Chomsky & Halle (1968) or of underspecification theories, are sometimes considered too abstract to accurately reflect the communicative competence of native speakers. Followers of these arguments believe the less abstract surface forms are more "psychologically real" and thus more useful in terms of pedagogy.

 Diacritics

المقالة الرئيسية: English terms with diacritical marks

انظر أيضاً: British and American keyboards

Some English words can be written with diacritics; these are mostly loanwords, usually from French. As vocabulary becomes naturalised, there is an increasing tendency to omit the accent marks, even in formal writing. For example, rôle and hôtel originally had accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accents are almost never used. The words were originally considered foreign—and some people considered that English alternatives were preferable—but today their foreign origin is largely forgotten. Words most likely to retain the accent are those atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, café and pâté both have a pronounced final قالب:Vr, which would otherwise be silent under the normal English pronunciation rules. Moreover, in pâté, the acute accent is helpful to distinguish it from pate.

Further examples of words sometimes retaining diacritics when used in English are: ångström—partly because its symbol is ⟨Å⟩—appliqué, attaché, blasé, bric-à-brac, Brötchen, cliché, crème, crêpe, fiancé(e), flambé, jalapeño, naïve, naïveté, né(e), papier-mâché, passé, piñata, protégé, résumé, risqué, and voilà. Italics, with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, adiós, belles-lettres, crème brûlée, pièce de résistance, raison d'être, and vis-à-vis.

It was formerly common in American English to use a diaeresis to indicate a hiatus, e.g. coöperate, daïs, and reëlect. The New Yorker and Technology Review magazines still use it for this purpose, even as general use became much rarer. Instead, modern orthography generally prefers no mark (cooperate) or a hyphen (co-operate) for a hiatus between two morphemes in a compound word. By contrast, use of diaereses in monomorphemic loanwords such as naïve and Noël remains relatively common.

In poetry and performance arts, accent marks are occasionally used to indicate typically unstressed syllables that should be stressed when read for dramatic or prosodic effect. This is frequently seen with the -ed suffix in archaic and pseudoarchaic writing, e.g. cursèd indicates the قالب:Vr should be fully pronounced. The grave being to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament).

 Ligatures

انظر أيضاً: American and British English spelling differences § ae and oe

In certain older texts (typically British), the use of the ligatures قالب:Vr and قالب:Vr is common in words such as archæology, diarrhœa, and encyclopædia, all of Latin or Greek origin. Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced by the digraphs ⟨ae⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ (encyclopaedia, diarrhoea) in British English or just قالب:Vr (encyclopedia, diarrhea) in American English, though both spell some words with only قالب:Vr (economy, ecology) and others with قالب:Vr and قالب:Vr (paean, amoeba, oedipal, Caesar). In some cases, usage may vary; for instance, both encyclopedia and encyclopaedia are current in the UK.

 Phonic irregularities

انظر أيضاً: English spelling reform

Partly because English has never had any official regulating authority for spelling, such as the Spanish Real Academia Española, the French Académie française, the German Council for German Orthography, the Danish Sprognævn, and the Thai Royal Society, English spelling is considered irregular and complex compared to that of other languages. Although French, Danish, and Thai, among other languages, present a similar degree of difficulty when encoding (writing), English is more difficult when decoding (reading), as there are clearly many more possible pronunciations of a group of letters. For example, in French, [] (as in "true", but short), can be spelled قالب:Vr (ou, nous, tout, choux), but the pronunciation of each of those sequences is always the same. However, in English, while [] can be spelled in up to 24 different ways, including قالب:Vr (spook, truth, suit, blues, to, shoe, group, through) (see Sound-to-spelling correspondences below), all of these spellings have other pronunciations as well (e.g., foot, us, build, bluest, so, toe, grout, plough, sew) Thus, in unfamiliar words and proper nouns, the pronunciation of some sequences, [[Ough (orthography)|قالب:Vr]] being the prime example, is unpredictable even for educated native speakers.

 Spelling irregularities

Attempts to regularise or reform the spelling of English have usually failed. However, Noah Webster promoted more phonetic spellings in the United States, such as flavor for British flavour, fiber for fibre, defense for defence, analyze for analyse, catalog for catalogue, and so forth. These spellings already existed as alternatives, but Webster's dictionaries helped standardise them in the United States. (See American and British English spelling differences for details.)

Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other irregularities in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains, depending on dialect, 24–27 consonant phonemes and 13–20 vowels. However, there are only 26 letters in the modern English alphabet, so there is not a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, قالب:Vr represents two different sounds (the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives) (see Pronunciation of English th), and the voiceless alveolar sibilant can be represented by قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr.

It is, however, not (solely) the shortage of letters which makes English spelling irregular. Its irregularities are caused mainly by the use of many different spellings for some of its sounds, such as [] and [] (too, true, shoe, flew, through; sleeve, leave, even, seize, siege; stole, coal, bowl, roll, old, mould), and the use of identical sequences for spelling different sounds (over, oven, move).

Furthermore, English no longer makes any attempt to anglicise the spellings of loanwords, but preserves the foreign spellings, even when they do not follow English spelling conventions like the Polish قالب:Vr in Czech (rather than *Check) or the Norwegian قالب:Vr in fjord (although fiord was formerly the most common spelling). In early Middle English, until roughly 1400, most imports from French were respelled according to English rules (e.g. bataille–battle, bouton–button, but not double, or trouble). Instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling, e.g. ski, adopted from Norwegian in the mid-18th century. It used to be pronounced [], similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the mid-20th century helped the [] pronunciation replace it.

There was also a period when the spelling of a small number of words was altered to make them conform to their perceived etymological origins. For example, قالب:Vr was added to debt (originally dette) to link it to the Latin debitum, and قالب:Vr in island to link it to Latin insula instead of its true origin, the Old English word īġland. قالب:Vr in ptarmigan has no etymological justification whatsoever, only seeking to show Greek origin despite being a Gaelic word.

The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols قالب:Vr have in the International Phonetic Alphabet. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, Hindu used to be spelled Hindoo, and the name Maria used to be pronounced like the name Mariah, but was changed to conform to this system. This only further complicates the spelling, however. On the one hand, words that retained anglicised spellings may be misread in a hyperforeign way. On the other hand, words that are respelled in a 'foreign' way may be misread as if they are English words, e.g. Muslim was formerly spelled Mooslim because of its original pronunciation.

Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. They introduced new or simplified spellings like lite instead of light, thru instead of through, and rucsac instead of rucksack. The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: diminutive versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: Nikki and Nicky, Toni and Tony, Jo and Joe. The differentiation in between names that are spelled differently but have the same phonetic sound may come from modernisation or different countries of origin. For example, Isabelle and Isabel sound the same but are spelled differently; these versions are from France and Spain respectively.

As an example of the irregular nature of English spelling, قالب:Vr can be pronounced at least nine different ways: [] in out, [] in soul, [] in soup, [] in touch, [] in could, [] in four, [] in journal, [] in cough, and [] in famous (See Spelling-to-sound correspondences). In the other direction, [] can be spelled in at least 18~21 different ways: be (cede), ski (machine), bologna (GA), algae, quay, beach, bee, deceit, people, key, keyed, field (hygiene), amoeba, chamois (GA), dengue (GA), beguine, guyot, and ynambu (See Sound-to-spelling correspondences). (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.)

Sometimes everyday speakers of English change counterintuitive spellings, with the new spellings usually not judged to be entirely correct. However, such forms may gain acceptance if used enough. An example is the word miniscule, which still competes with its original spelling of minuscule, though this might also be because of analogy with the word mini.

 History

Inconsistencies and irregularities in English pronunciation and spelling have gradually increased in number throughout the history of the English language. There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the Great Vowel Shift, account for a tremendous number of irregularities. Second, more recent loan words generally carry their original spellings, which are often not phonetic in English; this includes romanized words from languages written using non-Latin scripts.

The regular spelling system of Old English was swept away by the Norman Conquest, and English itself was supplanted in some spheres by Norman French for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, and kept their French spellings. The spelling of Middle English is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled in different ways, sometimes even in the same sentence. However, these were generally much better guides to the then-pronunciation than modern English spelling is.

For example, [], normally written قالب:Vr, is spelled with an قالب:Vr in one, some, love, etc., due to Norman spelling conventions which prohibited writing قالب:Vr before قالب:Vr due to the graphical confusion that would result. (قالب:Vr were written identically with two minims in Norman handwriting; قالب:Vr was written as two قالب:Vr letters; قالب:Vr was written with three minims, hence قالب:Vr looked like قالب:Vr, etc.). Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final قالب:Vr. Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in love, move, and cove are due to ambiguity in the Middle English spelling system, not sound change.

In 1417, Henry V began using English, which had no standardised spelling, for official correspondence instead of Latin or French which had standardised spelling, e.g. Latin had one spelling for right (rectus), Old French as used in English law had six and Middle English had 77. This motivated writers to standardise English spelling, an effort which lasted about 500 years.

There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the Great Vowel Shift, which resulted in the قالب:Vr in make, for example, changing from a pure vowel to a diphthong. These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but, in some cases, they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the many pronunciations of قالب:Vr (tough, through, though, cough, plough, etc.). Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England. However, the arrival of the modern printing press in 1476 froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation. Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the Low Countries. For example, the ⟨h⟩ in ghost was influenced by Flemish. The addition and deletion of a silent e at the ends of words was also sometimes used to make the right-hand margin line up more neatly.

By the time dictionaries were introduced in the mid-17th century, the spelling system of English had started to stabilise. By the 19th century, most words had set spellings, though it took some time before they diffused throughout the English-speaking world. In The Mill on the Floss (1860), English novelist George Eliot satirised the attitude of the English rural gentry of the 1820s towards orthography:

Mr. Tulliver did not willingly write a letter, and found the relation between spoken and written language, briefly known as spelling, one of the most puzzling things in this puzzling world. Nevertheless, like all fervid writing, the task was done in less time than usual, and if the spelling differed from Mrs. Glegg's,–why, she belonged, like himself, to a generation with whom spelling was a matter of private judgment.

The modern English spelling system, with its national variants, spread together with the expansion of public education later in the 19th century.

 ⟨ough⟩ words

المقالة الرئيسية: Ough (tetragraph)

The tetragraph قالب:Vr can be pronounced in at least ten different ways, six of which are illustrated in the construct, Though the tough cough and hiccough plough him through, which is quoted by Robert A. Heinlein in The Door into Summer to illustrate the difficulties facing automated speech transcription and reading. Ough itself is a word, an exclamation of disgust similar to ugh, though rarely known or used. The following are typical pronunciations of this string of letters:

• []oʊ[] (as in so) in though and dough
• []ʌf[] (as in cuff) in tough, rough, enough, and the name Hough
• []ɒf[] (as in off) in trough, cough, and Gough
• []uː[] (as in blue) in through
• []ɔː[] (as in saw) in thought, ought, sought, nought, brought, etc.
• []ə[] (as in comma) in thorough, borough, and names ending in -borough; however, American English pronounces this as []oʊ[]
• []aʊ[] (as in how) in bough, sough, drought, plough (plow in North America), doughty, and the names Slough and Doughty
• []ɒx[] (as in loch; mainly in words of Gaelic origin) in the word lough (an anglicised variant of loch used in Ireland) and in Irish place names, such as Ardclough, Glendalough, Loughmoe, Loughrea, etc.

The following pronunciations are found in uncommon single words:

• hough: []ɒk[] (more commonly spelled "hock" now)
• hiccough (a now-uncommon variant of hiccup): []ʌp[] as in up
• Oughterard (Irish place name): []uːx[]

The place name Loughborough uses two different pronunciations of قالب:Vr: the first قالب:Vr has the sound as in cuff and the second rhymes with thorough.

 Spelling-to-sound correspondences

انظر أيضاً: Help:IPA/English

Notes:

• In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings. A hyphen after the letter indicates that it must be at the beginning of a syllable, e.g., قالب:Vr- in jumper and ajar. A hyphen before the letter indicates that it cannot be at the beginning of a word, e.g., -قالب:Vr in sick and ticket.
• More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, e.g., "قالب:Vr- before قالب:Vr" takes precedence over "قالب:Vr".
• Where the letter combination is described as "word-final", inflectional suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, e.g., catalogues.
• The dialects used are Received Pronunciation and General American. When pronunciations differ idiosyncratically, a pronunciation that only applies to one of the dialects is noted as being (RP) or (GA). When pronunciations differ systematically in a way that is not accounted for by the diaphonemic transcription system (i.e. the trap-bath and lot-cloth splits), the pronunciations in both dialects are given.
• Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded.

 Consonants

Spelling		Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Other values	Examples of other values
b, bb	morpheme final after قالب:Vr	∅	climber, numbing, bombed	[]b[]	lamb, nimb
	elsewhere	[]b[]	bit, ebb, limber, bombe, obtain, blood, bring	∅	combe, bdellium, debtor, doubt
c	before قالب:Vr	[]s[]	cellar, city, cyst, face, prince, nicer caesium, coelacanth	[]tʃ[] []ʃ[] []ʒ[] []k[] []ts[]	cello, vermicelli special, liquorice coercion Celts, chicer, syncing letovicite
	word initial before قالب:Vr	∅	cnidarian, ctenoid
	elsewhere	[]k[]	cat, cross, predict, opuscule, picture	∅	blancmange, indict, muscle, victual
cc	before قالب:Vr	[]ks[]	accept, eccentric, occidental	[]k[] []tʃ[] []s[]	soccer, recce, siccing bocce, breccia, cappuccino flaccid
	elsewhere	[]k[]	account, accrue, occur, yucca
ch	after قالب:Vr	[](t)ʃ[]	branch, truncheon, franchise, trenchant	[]k[] []tʃ[] []ʃ[]	inchoate, synchronise, elasmobranch enchant, enchilada, chinchilla penchant
	in words of Greek origin	[]k[]	chasm, chimera, chord, lichen	∅	drachm
	in words of Modern French origin	[]ʃ[]	chaise, machine, cached, parachute	[]k[] []tʃ[]	chemist, choir, machination chassis (GA), cheque, chowder, niche (GA)
	elsewhere	[]tʃ[]	chase, chin, attached, chore	[]k[] []ʃ[] []h[] []dʒ[] []x[] ∅	ached, anchor, leprechaun machete, pistachio, welch chutzpah (also with []x[]) sandwich, Greenwich loch yacht, Crichton
ck		[]k[]	tack, ticket
d, dd, dh		[]d[]	dive, ladder, jodhpurs	[]t[] []dʒ[] []ð[] ∅	ached, creased, iced, puffed, raked graduate, gradual (both also []dj[] in RP) gorsedd, edh Wednesday, handsome, sandwich, ceilidh
dg	before قالب:Vr or a suffix	[]dʒ[]	lodger, pidgin, edgy, abridgment, acknowledgment, judgment, lodgment, fledgling	[]dɡ[]	headgear
f, ff		[]f[]	fine, off, affinity	[]v[]	of
g	before قالب:Vr	[]ɡ[] []dʒ[]	get, eager, algae (RP), gig gel, pager, algae (GA), gin gentle, rage, gigantic, regimen	[]ʒ[]	genre, barrage, gigue, regime
	before قالب:Vr	∅	phlegmy, diaphragm gnome, signed, poignant, reign	[]ɡ[] []ʒ[]	pigmy, signet, indignant judgment
	elsewhere	[]ɡ[]	go, great, leg, margaric	[]dʒ[] []x[]	margarine, gaol witgat
gg		[]ɡ[]	dagger, smuggest, staggering	[]dʒ[] []ɡdʒ[]	agger, suggest, exaggerate suggest (GA)
gh	word-initial	[]ɡ[]	ghost, ghastly, ghetto
	elsewhere	∅	daughter, through, fraught, brougham eight, higher, straight, sighed	[]ə[] []oʊ[] []x[] []k[] []k[] []f[] []ɡ[] []ɡh[] []p[]	burgh lough, saugh hough laughter, trough, draught, rough burgher, ogham, yogh leghorn, pigheaded hiccough
h	word-final or after قالب:Vr	∅	oh, rhubarb, rhyme, exhibit, exhaust	[]h[] []tʃ[]	exhale, exhume (in RP) sinh
	elsewhere	[]h[]	honey, heist, house, manhandle doohickey, vehicular	j w ∅	posthumous (in RP) Nahuatl honest, heir, hours, piranha annihilate, vehicle, dinghy
j		[]dʒ[]	jump, ajar jonquil, Julian jalap, cajole bijugate	[]j[] []ʒ[] []h[] ∅	Hallelujah, fjord jongleur, julienne, bijou jalapeno, fajita marijuana
k, kk, kh	word-initial before قالب:Vr	∅	knee, knife, knock	[]k[]	knish, Knoebel
	elsewhere	[]k[]	key, bake, trekking, sheikh, weeknight	∅	beknave, camiknickers
l, ll		[]l[]	valve, balcony, almost, valley, flotilla, line, colony	∅ []j[] []r[]	halve, balk, salmon tortilla colonel (in rhotic accents)
m, mm	word-initial before قالب:Vr	∅	mnemonic
	elsewhere	[]m[]	mine, hammer
n, nn	word-final after قالب:Vr	∅	hymn, autumn, damningly
	before []k,_ɡ[]	[]ŋ[]	inkling, bangle, anchor, minx	[]n[]	incline, vanguard, mankind
	elsewhere	[]n[]	nice, funny, enzyme monsignor, damnable, tin	[]ŋ[] ∅	anxiety monsieur
ng	word-final non-silent letter	[]ŋ[]	long, tongue, kingly, singer, clingy	[]ŋɡ[] []ndʒ[] []ŋ(k)[]	longer, strongest stingy (ungenerous) strength, amongst
	medially otherwise	[]ŋɡ[] []ndʒ[]	congress, singly, finger, language binging, wharfinger, dingy, engaol	[]nɡ[] []ŋ[] []nʒ[]	congrats, engage, vanguard hangar, lingonberry, angst ingenue, lingerie
	word-initial	[]əŋɡ[]	ngana, ngultrum, Nguni	[]n[]	ngaio, Ngati
p, pp	word-initial before قالب:Vr	∅	pneumonia, psyche, ptomaine	[]p[]	psst
	elsewhere	[]p[]	pill, happy, soup, corpse, script	∅	coup, corps, receipt, raspberry
ph, pph		[]f[]	photograph, sapphire	[]v[] []p[] []ph[] ∅	Stephen shepherd, kniphofia, drophead apophthegm
q	in words of Chinese origin	[]tʃ[]	qi, qigong, guqin
	elsewhere	[]k[]	Iraq, waqf, yaqona, mbaqanga, qiviut
r, rr, rh, rrh	before a consonant finally before final قالب:Vr	[]r[], ∅ in non-rhotic	cart, hurt fir, walker, tear, burr, myrrh care	∅	sarsaparilla, forecastle
	elsewhere	[]r[]	ray, parrot, rhyme, diarrhoea	∅	iron, croissant (RP), hors d'oeuvre (some pronunciations)
See below for combinations of vowel letters and قالب:Vr
s	word-final -قالب:Vr morpheme after a fortis sound	[]s[]	pets, shops
	word-final -قالب:Vr morpheme after a lenis sound	[]z[]	ines
	between vowels	[]z[]	phrases, prison, pleasing	[]s[] []ʒ[]	bases, bison, leasing vision, closure
	elsewhere	[]s[]	song, ask, misled	[]z[] []ʃ[] ∅	is, lens, raspberry sugar, tension island, aisle, debris, mesne
sc	before قالب:Vr	[]s[]	scene, scepter, scissors, scythe	[]sk[] []ʃ[] []z[]	sceptic, scirrhus fascism crescent (RP), discern
sch		[]ʃ[]	schedule (RP), schist, eschalot	[]sk[] []s[] []s tʃ[]	school, scheme, schizoid, ischemia, eschar schism (RP) mischief, eschew
sh		[]ʃ[]	shin, fashion, wish, Lewisham, foreshore, kinship	[]s h[] []z h[] []s ʃ[] []ʃ h[] []s[]	mishap, mishit hogshead tranship threshold dishonour
ss		[]s[]	boss, assign, narcissus dissert, posses, brassier, finesse, cesspool, missout	[]ʃ[] []ʒ[] []z[] []s s[]	tissue, passion rescission, scissure dessert, possess, brassiere, scissor disseat, misspell, missort
sw		[]sw[]	swore, swan, swift	[]s[] []zw[] ∅	sword, answer menswear coxswain
t, tt	in -قالب:Vr	∅	hasten, listens, rustling, thistles	[]t[]	tungsten, listless
	elsewhere	[]t[]	ten, bitter, etiology, nastier, attune, piteous, cation, softer, wallet, gristmill, haste, dishearten	[]ʃ[] []tʃ[] []ʒ[] []d[] ∅ []θ[]	ration, martial, cautious bastion, nature, fortune, righteous equation, transition (RP) kindergarten (GA) soften, ballet, Christmas, mortgage tanh
tch		[]tʃ[]	batch, kitchen
th		[]θ[] []ð[]	absinthe bother, soothe	[]t[] []tθ[] []th[] []tʃ[] ∅	thyme eighth outhouse, potherb (RP) posthumous (GA) asthma
v, vv		[]v[]	vine, heavy, savvy, reveled, revved
w	before قالب:Vr	∅	wrong, wrist, awry
	elsewhere	[]w[]	sward, swerve, wale	∅ []v[]	two, sword, answer, gunwale Weltanschauung, witgat
wh-	before قالب:Vr	[]h[]	who, whole	[]w[]	whopping, whorl
	elsewhere	[]w[]	wheel	[]f[]	whew (RP), whanau
x	word-initial	[]z[]	xylophone, xenon, xenophobia
	after قالب:Vr-, and before a vowel	[]ɡz[]	example, exist, exotic, exult existential, exultation, exit	[]ks[] []z[]	exogenous, exercise
	elsewhere	[]ks[]	boxes, mixes, expect, taxation, tuxedo, proximity, jinxed, next, six, taxi	[]ɡz[] []ɡʒ[] []kʃ[] []z[] ∅	Alexander, auxiliary luxury (GA) anxiety anxious, luxury, sexual (GA) luxurious plateaux, chateaux faux-pas, roux
	in words of Chinese or Mesoamerican origin	[]ʃ[]	xiangqi, xoloitzcuintle
xc	before قالب:Vr	[]ks[]	excellent, except, excited
xh		[]kʃ[]	exhale, exhume, foxhole	[]ks[] []ɡz[]	exhibition, Vauxhall exhaust, exhibit exhilarating, exhortation
y-		[]j[]	yes, young	[]ð[]	ye (mock archaic)
z, zz		[]z[]	gazump, seized, crazier, rhizoophagous, pizzazz, zoo, quiz	[]ʒ[] []ts[] dz ∅	azure, seizure, brazier (GA) schizophrenic, pizzas jiaozi rendezvous

 Vowels

In a generative approach to English spelling, Rollings (2004) identifies twenty main orthographic vowels of stressed syllables that are grouped into four main categories: "Lax", "Tense", "Heavy", "Tense-R".

Letter	Lax		Tense		Heavy		Tense-R
	IPA	example	IPA	example	IPA	example	IPA	example
a	[]æ[]	man	[]eɪ[]	mane	[]ɑːr[]	mar	[]ɛər[]	mare
e	[]ɛ[]	met	[]iː[]	mete	[]ɜːr[]	her	[]ɪər[]	here
i	[]ɪ[]	win	[]aɪ[]	wine	[]ɜːr[]	fir	[]aɪər[]	fire
o	[]ɒ[]	mop	[]oʊ[]	mope	[]ɔːr[]	for	[]ɔːr[]	fore
u	[]ʌ[]	hug	[]juː[]	huge	[]ɜːr[]	cur	[]jʊər[]	cure
	[]ʊ[]	push	[]uː[]	rude			[]ʊər[]	sure

Digraph	Lax		Tense		Heavy		Tense-R
	IPA	example	IPA	example	IPA	example	IPA	example
ai, ay	–		[]eɪ[]	bait	–		[]ɛər[]	air
				essay				Ayr
au, aw	–		[]ɔː[]	audio	–		[]ɔːr[]	aura
				draw				rawr
ea	[]ɛ[]	dreamt	[]iː[]	dream	[]ɜːr[]	learn	[]ɪər[]	hear
ee	–		[]iː[]	see	–		[]ɪər[]	beer
eu, ew	–		[]juː[]	feudal	–		[]jʊər[]	neurotic
				few				Newry
oa	–		[]oʊ[]	boat	–		[]ɔːr[]	soar
oo	[]ʊ[]	foot	[]uː[]	goose	–		[]ʊər[]	poor
	–		–		–		[]ɔːr[]	floor
ou, ow	[]ʌ[]	southern	[]aʊ[]	south	[]ɜːr[]	scourge	[]aʊər[]	hour
	–			now	–			dowry
	–		[]oʊ[]	soul	–		[]ɔːr[]	four
	[]ɒ[]	knowledge		know			–
oi, oy	–		[]ɔɪ[]	point	–		[]ɔɪər[]	coir
				boy				Moyra

For instance, قالب:Vr can represent the lax vowel []æ[], tense []eɪ[], heavy [], or tense-r []. Heavy and tense-r vowels are the respective lax and tense counterparts followed by قالب:Vr.

Tense vowels are distinguished from lax vowels with a [[Silent e|"silent" قالب:Vr]] that is added at the end of words. Thus, قالب:Vr in hat is lax []æ[], but when قالب:Vr is added in the word hate قالب:Vr is tense []eɪ[]. Heavy and tense-r vowels follow a similar pattern, e.g. قالب:Vr in car is heavy []ɑːr[], قالب:Vr followed by silent قالب:Vr in care is []ɛər[]. قالب:Vr represents two different vowel patterns, one being []ʌ,_juː,_ɜː,_jʊə[], the other []ʊ,_uː,_ʊə[]. There is no distinction between heavy and tense-r قالب:Vr, and قالب:Vr in the []ʊ,_uː,_ʊə[] pattern does not have a heavy vowel.

Besides silent قالب:Vr, another strategy for indicating tense and tense-r vowels is the addition of another orthographic vowel forming a digraph. In this case, the first vowel is usually the main vowel while the second vowel is the "marking" vowel. For example, man has a lax قالب:Vr ( []æ[]), but the addition of قالب:Vr (as the digraph قالب:Vr) in main marks the قالب:Vr as tense ( []eɪ[]). These two strategies produce words that are spelled differently but pronounced identically, which helps differentiate words that would otherwise be homonyms, as in mane (silent قالب:Vr strategy), main (digraph strategy) and Maine (both strategies).

Besides the 20 basic vowel spellings, Rollings (2004) has a reduced vowel category (representing the sounds []ə,_ɪ[]) and a miscellaneous category (representing the sounds []θjɔɪ,_aʊ,_aɪ[] and []j[]+V, []w[]+V, V+V).

 Combinations of vowel letters excluding those followed by ⟨r⟩

To reduce dialectal difficulties, the sound values given here correspond to the conventions at Help:IPA/English. This table includes قالب:Vr when they represent vowel sounds. If no information is given, it is assumed that the vowel is in a stressed syllable.

Deriving the pronunciation of an English word from its spelling requires not only a careful knowledge of the rules given below (many of which are not explicitly known even by native speakers: speakers merely learn the spelling of a word along with its pronunciation) and their many exceptions, but also:

• a knowledge of which syllables are stressed and which are unstressed (not derivable from the spelling: compare hallow and allow)
• which combinations of vowels represent monosyllables and which represent disyllables (ditto: compare waive and naive, creature and creator)

The pronunciation of vowel letters when followed by ⟨r⟩ is covered in a separate table below.

Spelling			Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Minor values	Examples of minor value	Exceptions
a	in closed syllables before multiple consonants final vowel in word		[]æ[]	hatchet, banner, tally acrobat, cat	[]eɪ[]	ancient, chamber, pastry, bass	[]ɒ[] yacht, restaurant []ɛ[] catch (GA) []ʌ[] apsaras ∅ forecastle
					[]ɑː[] (RP), []æ[] (GA)	aft, ask, dance, past
	followed by 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ,_ə[]		[]æ[]	national, camera, reality acid, granite, palace	[]eɪ[]	nationhood, scathingly basis, aphasic	∅ sarsaparilla
	in open syllables or before cons. + قالب:Vr before single consonant before heterosyllabic vowel		[]eɪ[]	ache, gave, opaque, savor, status table, hatred, April chaos, aorta, mosaic	[]æ[]	have, plaque, manor, statue macle, sacrifice, theatrical	[]ɛ[] many, any, ate (RP) []aɪ[] naive (also with []ɑː[]) []ʌ[] sati
					[]ɑː[]	debacle gala, lava, slalom, sonata
	before final -قالب:Vr		[]eɪ[]	range, exchange, haste	[]æ[]	flange, caste (GA)
					[]ɑː[]	melange
	after []w[] except before []k,_ɡ,_ŋ[] closed syllables		[]ɒ[]	want, watch, swamp, swastika, wallet	[]ɒ[] (RP), []ɔː[] (GA) []ɔː[] []eɪ[]	squash, wasp, wash wall, walnut, walrus wastage	[]ɑː[] qualm (also []ɔː[]), suave, swami []æ[] swam, aquatic (RP) []ʌ[] was (GA), what (GA)
	after []w[] except before []k,_ɡ,_ŋ[] open syllables		[]eɪ[]	persuade, swathe	[]ɒ[] []ɔː[]	quality water
	word-final		[]ɑː[]	bra, cha-cha, schwa, spa
	unstressed	in -قالب:Vr (except verbs)	[]ɪ,_ə[]	palace, damage, forage, garbage, pirate, private	[]ɑː[] []ɪ[]	RP: garage, barrage chocolate, purchase, solace	[]eɪ[] rampage, primate
		elsewhere	[]ə[]	about, an, salary, woman, blancmange, opera, via	[]ə[] to ∅ []eɪ[] []æ[] []ɑː[] (RP), []æ[] (GA)	artistically, ordinary, necessary probate, folate, kinase anorak, rectangle, abscond contrast (n), flabbergast, reprimand	[]i[] karaoke, bologna (GA) []æ[] Assam []ʌ[] chaprassi
aa, ah			[]ɑː[]	baa, naan, blah	[]ə[]	Isaac, bar mitzvah	[]eɪ[] Quaalude
ae			[]iː[]	encyclopaedia, paediatrician, Caesar	[]ɛ[]	aesthetic	[]eɪ[] reggae, sundae, Gael []ə[] Michael, polkaed []aɪ[] maestro []aɪ.ɛ[] paella []æ[] Scottish Gaelic
ai	stressed		[]eɪ[]	daisy, laid, paisley, regain, waif	[]aɪ[] []ɛ[] []eɪ.ɪ[]	aisle, bonsai, daimon, krait said, again, against dais, laic, mosaic, papain	[]æ[] plaid, plaited, daiquiri []aɪˈiː[] naif, caique []i.ɪ[] archaism (RP)
	unstressed		[]ɪ,_ə[]	bargain, mountain, portrait	[]ə[]	certain, coxswain, spritsail
ao			[]aʊ[]	manoao, miaow, Maoism, cacao (GA)	[]eɪ[] []eɪ.ɒ[] []eɪ.ə[] []iˈoʊ[] []ɑːoʊ[]	gaol kaon, chaos kaolin karaoke baobab
au			[]ɔː[]	cause, fraud, haul, sauce, slaughter	[]ɒ[] []ɑː[] (RP), []æ[] (GA) []aʊ[] []oʊ[]	because (RP), sausage (RP), leprechaun (GA) aunt, draught, laughter degauss, graupel, trauma (GA) chauffeur, gauche, mauve	[]eɪ[] gauge []ʌ[] because (GA) []ə[] meerschaum ∅ restaurant
aw			[]ɔː[]	awed, flaw, hawk, tawny			[]aʊ[] Mawlid
ay			[]eɪ[]	bayonet, essays, grayer, hayride	[]aɪ[] []ɛ[]	aye, bayou, kayak, papaya mayor, prayer, says	[]iː[] cay, quay, parlay []əj[] gayal
e	in closed syllables before multiple consonants final vowel in word		[]ɛ[]	petty, lethargy, trebleget, watershed	[]iː[]	axes (plural of axis)	[]ɪ[] pretty, English []ɒ[] ennui, entourage, genre []eɪ[] eh []ʌ[] feng shui
	bef. 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ[]		[]ɛ[]	legacy, elegant, delicate, metric, crevice, epic	[]iː[]	lethal, reflex, Stephen, feces, legally, devious, premium, evil, scenic, strategic
	in open syllables before single consonant before cons. + قالب:Vr + vowel final, only vowel in word before heterosyllabic vowel		[]iː[]	even, demon, fetal, recombine metre, secret, egret, secretion be, she museum, neon, theater (GA)	[]ɛ[]	ever, lemon, petal, recollect petrol, debris (RP), discretion	[]eɪ[] crepe, suede, ukulele
					[]eɪ[]	abbe, cafe (GA), saute, seance, rodeo, deity  (RP)	[]ɛ[] yeah (GA)
	unstressed	word-final	∅	disciplin [ك‍]e, recites, smile, limitrophe	[]iː[]	recipes, simile, apostrophe, deled	[]eɪ[] latte, mores, protege []ɛ[] zanze
		before heterosyllabic vowel	[]i[]	create, area, atheism, video	[]eɪ[]	fideism, realpolitik
		elsewhere	[]ɪ,_ə[]	market, ticket, honest, college, boxes, perfect, express, believe	[]ə[]	taken, decency, moment	[]ɛ[] contest, alphabet, princess
ea	in closed syllables before multiple consonants		[]ɛ[]	dreamt, cleanse, wealth	[]iː[] []iə[]	feast, yeast realty, fealty	[]ɔː[] ealderman []æ[] poleax []eɪ.ɑː[] seance
	in open syllables before single consonant before cons. + قالب:Vr + vowel final, only vowel in word before heterosyllabic vowel		[]iː[]	read (infinitive), leaf, zeal, dreams, cleans	[]ɛ[] []eɪ[] []ə[] []iːə,_ɪə[] []ɪə[] []iːə[] []iː.eɪ[]	read (past simple), deaf, zealot break, great, eagre, yea hydrangea, likeable, ocean ideal, real, cereal idea urea, laureate creating, protease, reagent	[]ɑː[] orgeat [] yeah (RP) []æ[] whereas []iːæ[] caveat []ɪ[] mileage []iː.ɪ[] lineage []iːæ[] beatify, reality []eɪˈɑː[] real
eau			[]oʊ[]	bureau, plateau, tableau	[]juː[]	beauty	[]ɒ[] bureaucracy []ə[] bureaucrat
ee			[]iː[]	bee, breech, feed, trainee	[]ɪ[]	breeches, been (GA)	[]eɪ[] matinee, fiancees, nee []i[] bungee, coffee []iː.ə[] freest, weest []iː.ɛ[] reecho, []iː.ɪ[] reelect []ɛ[] threepence (also []ɪ[] or []ʌ[])
eh			[]eɪ[]	eh, prehnite, tempeh	[]ɛə[]	yeh	[]ɛ[] feh []ə[], keffiyeh
ei, ey	usually		[]eɪ[]	veil, weight, heinous, obey	[]iː[] []aɪ[] []iː.ɪ[]	caffeine, seize, key, geyser either, height, heist, heinie, eye albeit, being, cysteine, deist	[]ɛ[] heifer, leisure, seigneur []æ[] reveille, serein []eɪ.ɪ[] fideist, []iˈaɪ[] deice
	after قالب:Vr		[]iː[]	deceive, ceiling, conceit			[]æ[] ceinture, enceinte []eɪ.ɪ[] glaceing, []iː.ɪ[] haecceity
	unstressed	word-final	[]i[] []iː[]	monkey, volley, curtsey, jersey			[]eɪ[] survey (n)
		elsewhere	[]ɪ,_ə[]	foreign, counterfeit, forfeit	[]ə[]	mullein, villein	[]ɪ[] ageist, herein, ogreish
eo	usually bisyllabic		[]iː.ɒ[] []iː.oʊ[] []iːə[]	eon, geology, reoffer, teleost creole, geode, leonine, video galleon, leotard, peon, theory	[]ɛ[] []iː[] []ə[]	feoffee, jeopardy, leopard feoff, people luncheon, pigeon, embraceor	[]oʊ[] yeoman, []ɛə[] ceorl []juː[] feodary, []uːi[] geoduck []eɪoʊ[] rodeo, teosinte []ɒ[] thereon []ʌ[] whereof []wʌ[] someone
eu, ew (ieu, iew)	usually		[]juː[]	deuce, feudal, queue, dew, ewe, view	[]ɜː[] []iːə[]	berceuse, danseuse museum	[]oʊ[] sew ∅ fauteuil
	after []r,_ʃ,_ʒ,_dʒˌl[]		[]uː[]	rheumatism, sleuth, jewel, blew, leukemia, lewd, lieu	[]iːə[]	nucleus, pileus	[]oʊ[] shew []ɛf[] lieutenant (RP) []jɜː[] milieu (RP) []iːˈjuː[] reuse []iː.ʌ[] reutters []ʌ[] pileup []ə[] whereupon []ɔɪ[] Freudian
i	in closed syllables before multiple consonants final vowel in worded		[]ɪ[]	dissent, mislaid, slither kiss, sic, bit, inflict, hint, plinth	[]aɪ[]	dissect, island, indict, pint, ninth	[]æ[] meringue, timbre, absinthe (also []ɪ[]) []iː[] artiste, chenille, skis, chic, ambergris
	bef. 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ[] before cons. + قالب:Vr + vowel		[]ɪ[]	litany, liberal, chivalry, misery finish, limit, minute (n) hideous, position, Sirius	[]aɪ[]	blithely, irony, libelous, rivalry, miserly, whitish, writing, shinier, tidied
	in open syllables before single consonant before cons. + -قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr + vowel before -قالب:Vr word final before heterosyllabic vowel		[]aɪ[]	cited, dive, mica, rise, polite, shine idle, trifle, nitrous, mitres sighed, signage alumni, alibi, radii vial, quiet, prior, pious	[]ɪ[]	city, give, vicar, risen triple, citrus, giblets pighead, signal
					[]iː[]	ski, police, elite, machine, litres, in vitro, chignon, Monsignor clientele, fiat, lien, skiing
	before -قالب:Vr		[]aɪ[]	wilder, remind	[]ɪ[]	bewilder, rescind
	unstressed	before heterosyllabic vowel	[]j[]	onion, minion	[]aɪ[]	biology, diameter	∅ parliament, lieu, nostalgia []i[] liaison, alien, radii, idiot
		elsewhere	[]ɪ,_ə[]	divide, permit (n), livid, typical	[]ə[]	giraffe, pencil, cousin, Cheshire	∅ business []aɪ[] director, minute (adj) []aɪə[] sapphire
ie [ك‍]	word-finally		[]aɪ[]	belie, die, untie, vie	[]i[]	goalie, oldie, auntie, movie	[]eɪ[] lingerie (GA), []ieɪ[] kyrie
	elsewhere		[]iː[]	field, siege, rabies, skied	[]aɪ[] []aɪə[] []iə[] to []jə[] []iˈɛ[]	allied, pied, skies client, diet, science, sliest ambient, alien, oriel, ugliest orient (v), acquiesce	[]ɪ[] sieve, mischief, kerchief []ɛ[] friend, hygienic (GA) []aɪˈɛ[] biennial []aɪiː[] diene []iː.ɒ[] clientele []iˈiː[] medieval []iːə[] lien
o	in closed syllables before multiple consonants final vowel in word		[]ɒ[]	doctor, bother, donkey dot, bomb, wonk, font	[]ʌ[] []oʊ[]	won, monkey, front gross, comb, wonted, both	[]uː[] tomb, womb []ʊ[] wolf []wʌ[] once []ɔː[] (GA) long, broth
	bef. 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ[]		[]ɒ[]	opera, colonise, botany topic, solid, promise	[]oʊ[]	brokenly, probity, diplomacy meiosis, aerobic
	in open syllables before single consonant before cons. + -قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr + vowel word-final before heterosyllabic vowel (inc. unstressed)		[]oʊ[]	omen, grove, total noble, cobra banjo, go boa, poet, stoic cooperate, proactive	[]ɒ[] []uː[] []ʌ[]	proper, gone, shone (RP) to, who, move, doable come, love, done, colander	[]ʊ[] woman, bosom []ɪ[] women []wʌ[] one ∅ colonel, chocolate
	unstressed		[]ə[]	eloquent, wanton, purpose, Europe			[]ɒ[] neuron, proton []ɪ,_ə[] hydrogen
oa			[]oʊ[]	boat, coal, load, coaxing	[]oʊ.ə[] []oʊæ[] []oʊˈeɪ[]	boa, inchoate coaxial, ogdoad oasis, cloaca	[]ɔː[] broad []uːə[] doable []oʊˈɑː[] koala []wɑː[] quinoa
oe	usually		[]iː[]	amoeba, coelacanth, foetal, phoenix	[]oʊ[] []uː[] []oʊˈɛ[]	doeskin, woeful shoelace, canoeing poetic, soever, orthoepic	[]ɛ[] foetid, roentgen []oʊˈiː[] coeval, noesis []oʊˈɜː[] coerce []oʊ.ə[] poetry, orthoepy
	last vowel in word		[]oʊ[]	foe, goes, toed, woe	[]uː[] []oʊɛ[] []oʊ.ə[] []oʊ.ɪ,_oʊ.ə[]	shoes, canoe coed, noel, phloem goer loess, poem	[]ʌ[] does []uːə[] doeth, doer []ɜː[] foehn []oʊiː[] diploe, kalanchoe
	unstressed		[]ɪ[]	oedema, oesophagus	[]oʊ[]	aloe, echoed, oboes, soloed	[]uː[] hoopoe
oeu			[]uː[]	manoeuvre			[]ɜːr[] hors d'oeuvre
oh	final or before a consonant		[]oʊ[]	oh, kohlrabi, ohm, pharaoh	[]ɒ[]	John, johnny	[]ɔː[] bohrium []ə[] matzoh
oi			[]ɔɪ[]	boing, moist, coin, envoi	[]oʊɪ[] []wɑː[] []ə[]	going, egoist, heroin, stoic bourgeois, coiffeur, patois connoisseur, porpoise, tortoise	[]uːɪ[] doing []wæ[] croissant (RP) []i[] chamois []oʊaɪ[] ghettoise, oroide
oo	usually		[]uː[]	cool, sooth, boot, goosebumps	[]ʊ[]	wool, soot, foot, gooseberry	[]oʊ[] brooch []oʊ.ɒ[] coopt, zoology
	before قالب:Vr		[]ʊ[]	cook, shook, wood, stood	[]uː[]	kook, spook, food, brood	[]ʌ[] flood, blood
ou	before single consonant before cons. + -قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr + vowel before -قالب:Vr word final before heterosyllabic vowel		[]aʊ[]	out, aloud, bough	[]uː[] []ʌ[] []oʊ[]	soup, you, through touch soul, dough	[]juː[] (GA): ampoule, coupon
	before multiple consonants final vowel in word bef. 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ[] before cons. + قالب:Vr + vowel		[]ʊ[]	could, should	[]ʌ[] []oʊ[]	trouble, country boulder	[]ɒ[] cough, fount (printing)
	unstressed		[]ə[]	camouflage, labour, nervous	[]ʊ[] []ʊə[]	bivouac, bedouin, potpourri detour, fourchette	[]ʌ[] hiccough []w[] ratatouille, ouabaine
ow	stressed		[]aʊ[]	owl, bow, row, sow, allow	[]oʊ[]	own, bow, row, sow, alow	[]ɒ[] acknowledge []ɒ[] or []ʌ[] rowlock
	unstressed		[]oʊ[]	yellow, teabowl, landowner	[]aʊ[]	peafowl, sundowner	[]əw[] cassowary, toward (RP)
oy			[]ɔɪ[]	boy, doyenne, foyer, voyage	[]waɪ[]	voyeur, noyade	[]oʊj[] oyez []aɪ[] coyote (GA) []i[] buoy (GA)
u	in closed syllables before multiple consonants final vowel in word		[]ʌ[]	budding, cuckold, mullet but, gull, fuss	[]ʊ[]	pudding, cuckoo, bullet, put, full, puss	[]uː[] ruthless, brut []juː[] butte, debut, fuchsia, tulle
	in open syllables before single consonant before cons. + -قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr + vowel before heterosyllabic vowel word-final		[]juː[]	mute, student, puny, union, fuses bugle, hubris, nutrient (RP) duo, nuance, pursuant, ensuing menu, emu, impromptu (RP)	[]ʌ[] []uː[]	study, punish, bunion, buses butler, cutlery, subrogate super, lunar, absolute, revolution suet, lucrative, lugubrious hindu, tutu, tofu, truth	[]ɪ[] busy, business
	in open syllables after []r,_ʃ,_ʒ,_j[], or cons. + []l[] before single consonant before cons. + -قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr + vowel before heterosyllabic vowel word-final		[]uː[]	rule, chute, June, recluses scruples, rubric truant, fluent, cruelty flu, guru	[]juː[]	overuse, underused	[]ʌ[] runaway, truculent, clubroom []ʊ[] sugar
	after قالب:Vr	before قالب:Vr	∅	guest, guide, vaguer	[]w[]	segue, distinguish	[]juː[] ambiguity
		before قالب:Vr	[]w[]	language	∅	guard, languor	[]juː[] jaguar (RP)
	after قالب:Vr		[]w[]	quail, conquest, banquet, quite	∅	quay, conquer, bouquet, mosquito
	unstressed		[]ə[]	support, industry, useful, medium	[]juː[] []ʌ[]	debut guffaw, unruly, upend, vulgarity	[]ɪ,_ə[] minute, lettuce
ue	after قالب:Vr	word final	∅	league, tongue	[]juː[]	ague	[]eɪ[] merengue, []i[] dengue
		word medial	[]ɛ[] []ə[]	guest, guessed, baguette guerrilla, beleaguered	∅ []juː[]	vaguely, intrigued argued	[]weɪ[] segued, []wɛ[] guenon []wə[] unguent, []wiː[] ungues []juːə[] arguer []iː[] Portuguese
	after قالب:Vr, or cons. + قالب:Vr		[]uː[]	true, clue, gruesome, blues	[]uːə[]	influence, cruel, fluent, bluest	[]uː.ɪ[] cruet, []uːɛ[] influential
	elsewhere (except after قالب:Vr)		[]juː[]	virtue, cue, valued, hue, muesli	[]juːə[] []juːɛ[] []uː[] []uːə[]	fuel, constituent, rescuer innuendo, statuesque, minuet Sue, snafued (GA: due, revenue) GA: duel, pursuer	[]uː.ɪ[] suet, []uːɛ[] muezz|in []juːiː[] tenues, []juːeɪ[] habitue []jʊə[] puerile, []ʊ[] muenster []weɪ[] suede, Venezuelan []wɛ[] pueblo, []wɪ[] desuetude
ui	after قالب:Vr		[]ɪ[] []aɪ[]	guild, guitar, intriguing, roguish guide, guise, beguile	[]wɪ[]	anguish, penguin, linguist, sanguine	[]iː[] beguine, []wiː[] linguine []juːɪ[] arguing, aguish, contiguity
	after قالب:Vr or cons. + قالب:Vr		[]uː[]	juice, cruise, sluice, fruiting	[]uːɪ[]	fruition, fluid, ruin, druid, truism, incongruity	[]uː.j[] alleluia []ʊ[] Cruickshank
	elsewhere (except after قالب:Vr)		[]juːɪ[] []ɪ[]	conduit, cuing, genuine, Buick, circuitous, Jesuit build, circuit, biscuit, pursuivant	[]uː[] []juːə[] []juː[] []uːɪ[]	suit, suitable, nuisance (GA) intuitive (RP), promiscuity nuisance (RP), puisne suicide, tui, Inuit, Hinduism	[]aɪ[] duiker, []ə[] circuitry []wɪ[] cuisine, suint []wiː[] suite, ennui, tuille []uːaɪ[] sui generis []weɪ[] feng shui
uu			[]ju.ə[]	continuum, residuum	[]u.ə[]	menstruum	[](j)uːʌ[] duumvir []juː[] vacuum []uː[] muumuu
uy			[]aɪ[]	buy, buyout, guyed	[]iː[] []wi[]	guyot, cliquy, plaguy obsequy, soliloquy	[]jʊɪ[] toluyl []uːj[] thuya, gruyere []wiː[] puy []wiːj[] tuyere
w					[]uː[]	cwm
y	before multiple consonants bef. 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ[]		[]ɪ[]	myth, cryptic, system, symbol cylinder, typical, pyramid, dynasty cynic, lyric, lytic, syringe	[]aɪ[]	cyclone, hyphen, psyche, python hydrogen, dynasty (GA) cyclist, hybrid, psychic, typist
	before single consonant before cons. + -قالب:Vr or قالب:Vr + vowel word-final		[]aɪ[]	typing, style, paralyze, nylon cycle, cypress, hydrate, lycra awry, by, deny, sky, supply	[]ɪ[]	byzantine, synod, synagogue, Cypriote, sycophantic
	unstressed	word-final	[]i[]	any, city, happy, only, supply (adv)			[]aɪ[] ally (n)
		elsewhere	[]ɪ[]	bicycle, oxygen, polymer, dyslexia, physique, synonymous	[]ə[] []aɪ[] []i[]	sibyl, pyjamas dynamics, hypothesis, typhoon anyway, everything

 Combinations of vowel letters and ⟨r⟩

Spelling			Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Minor values (IPA)	Examples of minor value	Exceptions
ar	before a vowel	next syllable contains []ɪ,_ə[] within the same morpheme	[]ær[]	apparent, arid, guarantee, mariners, parish	[]ɛər[]	parent, garish
		followed by a morpheme boundary	[]ɛər[]	carer, scary, sharing, rarity	[]ær[] []ɑːr[]	comparable, comparative faraway, tsarist
		otherwise	[]ɛər[]	area, care, pharoah, vary, wariness	[]ɑːr[]	aria, are, safaris	[]ɒr[] quarantine, waratah
	elsewhere	stressed	[]ɑːr[]	argyle, car, farce			[]ɛər[] scarce []ær[] sarsaparilla (GA) []ɜːr[] dharna
		after []w[]	[]ɔːr[]	war, award, dwarf, warning, quarter
		unstressed	[]ər[]	circular, pillar
aer			[]ɛər[]	aerial, aeroplane	[]ɪər[]	chimaera	[]ər[] anaerobe
air			[]ɛər[]	cairn, millionaire, dairy			[]aɪər[] hetaira []aɪˈɪər[] zaire
aor			[]eɪˈɔːr[]	aorta	[]aʊ.r[] []ɔːr[]	Maori extraordinary
arr	before a spoken vowel		[]ær[]	marry, barrel, arrow, barren, carrot	[]ɑːr[]	starry, barring
	elsewhere		[]ɑːr[]	scarred, Parr
aur			[]ɔːr[]	dinosaur, aural, aura, Laura	[]ɒr[]	laurel, Laurence
awer			[]ɔː.ər[]	gnawer, rawer, thawer			[]ɔːr[] drawer
ayer, ayor			[]eɪ.ər[]	layer, mayor, soothsayer
er	before a vowel		[]ɪər[]	here, series, query, merely	[]ɛər[] []ɛr[] []iːˈr[]	compere, there, werewolf derelict, heresy, perish, very derail, reremind	[]ɜːr[] were, weregild
	elsewhere	stressed	[]ɜːr[]	her, jerk, coerced, merchant	[]ɛər[]	berceuse	[]ɑːr[] clerk, sergeant
		unstressed	[]ər[]	starter, fewer, Berber, arguer, shower	[]eɪ[] (or []ər[])	dossier, foyer
ear	before a consonant	before a morpheme boundary	[]ɪər[]	dearly, fearless, tearful, yearling	[]ɛər[]	bearskin, swearword	[]ɜːr[] heard
		elsewhere	[]ɜːr[]	pearly, hearse, yearning, earth	[]ɑːr[]	hearken, hearty, hearth	[]ɪər[] beard, peart []eɪ.ər[] bearnaise []iˈɑːr[] rearm
	elsewhere		[]ɪər[]	fear, year, appear, hearing,	[]ɛər[] []iː.ər[]	pear, bearish, wearing linear, nuclear, stearin	[]iːˈr[] tearoom
eer			[]ɪər[]	cheering, beer, eerie [ك‍]	[]iːər[]	freer, seers
eir			[]ɛər[]	heir, madeira, their	[]ɪər[]	weird, weir, eyrie	[]aɪər[] oneiric, eirenic
eor			[]iɔːr[]	deorbit, reorganise	[]ɪər[]	theory
err	before a spoken vowel		[]ɛr[]	error, merry, terrible, herring, ferret	[]ɜːr[]	referring
	elsewhere		[]ɜːr[]	err, preferred
eur	after []r,_ʃ,_ʒ,_j[], cons. + []l[]		[]ʊər[]	pleurisy
	elsewhere		[]jʊər[]	euro, liqueur, neural	[]ɜːr[]	masseur, voyeur	[]iː.ɜːr[] theurgy
ir	before a spoken vowel	usually	[]aɪr[]	pirate, virus, iris, spiral	[]ɪr[]	mirage, virile, iridescent, spirit
		derived from a word with silent ⟨e⟩ following	[]aɪər[]	wirable, aspiring
	before silent ⟨e⟩		[]aɪər[]	hire, fires, mired
	elsewhere	stressed	[]ɜːr[]	bird, fir			[]ɪər[] menhir
		unstressed	[]ər[]	elixir, kefir, triumvir
ier			[]ɪər[]	cashier, fierce, frontier, pier	[]aɪər[] []iər[]	shier, fiery, hierarchy, plier busier, rapier, glacier, hosiery	[]i.ɛər[] concierge, premiere []ieɪ[] atelier, bustier, dossier []iːər[] skier
irr	before a spoken vowel		[]ɪr[]	mirror, squirrel, cirrus, tirret	[]ɜːr[]	stirrer
	elsewhere		[]ɜːr[]	whirred
or	after قالب:Vr		[]ɜːr[]	word, work, worst	[]ɔːr[]	worn, sword, swore
	elsewhere	stressed	[]ɔːr[]	ford, boring, more	[]ɒr[]	forest, moral	[]ɜːr[] whorl []ʌr[] borough ∅ comfortable
		unstressed	[]ər[]	gladiator, major, equator
oar			[]ɔːr[]	boar, coarse, keyboard, soaring			[]ər[] cupboard, starboard []oʊˈɑːr[] coarctate
oer			[]oʊ.ər[]	partygoer, forgoer	[]uː.ər[]	undoer, canoer	[]ɜːr[] oersted
oir			[]wɑːr[]	reservoir, memoir, moire, soiree	[]ɔɪər[]	coir, loir, Moira	[]waɪər[] choir []ər[] avoirdupois
oor			[]ʊər[]	poor, moor, boorish, roorback	[]ɔːr[]	door, flooring	[]ər[] whippoorwill []oʊˈɔːr[] coordinate
orr	stressed	after قالب:Vr	[]ʌr[]	worry
		elsewhere	[]ɒr[]	horrid, porridge, torrent, correlate	[]ɒr[] (RP), []ɑːr[] (GA)	borrow, sorry	[]ɔːr[] Andorra
	unstressed		[]ər[]	correct, corrupt, haemorrhage, horrific
our	stressed		[]ɔːr[]	four, courtesan, discourse	[]aʊər[] []ɜːr[] []ʊər[]	hour, flour, scours journey, courtesy, scourge tour, courier, gourd, velour	[]ʌr[] courage, flourish
	unstressed		[]ər[]	labour, colourful	[]ʊr[] []ʊər[]	entourage, potpourri detour, fourchette
ur	before a vowel	elsewhere	[]jʊər[]	lure, purity, curing	[]ʊər[]	allure, guru, Silurian	[]ɛr[] bury, burial
		after []r,_ʃ,_ʒ,_j[], cons. + []l[]	[]ʊər[]	rural, jury, plural, sure, assurance, allure
	elsewhere	stressed	[]ɜːr[]	turn, occur, curdle	[]ʌr[]		[]ʊər[] langur
		unstressed	[]ər[]	sulphur, jodhpur, bulgur, murmur
urr	before a spoken vowel		[]ʌr[]	current, hurry, flurry, burrow, turret	[]ɜːr[]	furry, blurring
	elsewhere		[]ɜːr[]	burr, blurred
yr
	before a spoken vowel	bef. 2+ unstressed syllables next syllable contains []ɪ[]	[]ɪr[]	syrup, Pyrenees, lyric, pyramid, Syria, myriad, syringe, tyranny, pyrrhic
		elsewhere	[]aɪr[]	tyrant, gyrate, pyrotechnic, thyroid
	before silent ⟨e⟩		[]aɪər[]	lyre, pyre, tyres, gyred
	elsewhere	stressed	[]ɜːr[]	myrtle, myrrh
		unstressed	[]ər[]	martyr

 Combinations of other consonant and vowel letters

Spelling		Major value (IPA)	Examples of major value	Minor values (IPA)	Examples of minor value	Exceptions
al	Excluding before قالب:Vr (see below)	[]æl[]	pal, talcum, algae, alp	[]ɔːl[]	bald, Nepal, always, walrus	[]ɔː[] falcon (also with []ɔːl[], []ɒl[] or []æl[]) []ɒl[] false (RP; also []ɔːl[])
alf	before a vowel	[]ælf[]	alfalfa, malfeasance
	elsewhere	[]ɑːf[] (RP) []æf[] (GA)	calf, half			[]ɔːlf[] palfrey
alk	before a vowel	[]ælk[]	alkaline, grimalkin	[]ɔːlk[]	balkanise
	elsewhere	[]ɔːk[]	walk
all		[]ɔːl[] []æl[]	call, fallout, smaller shall, callus, fallow	[]ɒl[] []əl[]	wallet, swallow allow, dialled	[]ɛl[] marshmallow (GA), pall-mall (GA)
alm	before a vowel	lm/	palmate, salmonella, talmud	lm/	almanac, almost , instalment	[]æm[] salmon []ɑːlm[] almond (GA) []əlm[] signalment []ɑːm[] almond (RP), balmy, palmistry.
	elsewhere	[]ɑː(l)m[]	alms, calm			[]ɔːm[] halm
alt		[]ɔːlt,_ɒlt[]	alter, malt, salty, basalt	[]ælt[]	alto, shalt, saltation, asphalt (RP)	[]ɑːlt[] gestalt (GA) []əlt[] royalty, penalty
ange	word final	[]eɪndʒ[]	arrange, change, mange, strange	[]ændʒ[]	flange, phalange	[]ɑːnʒ[] melange []ɒndʒ[] blancmange []ɪndʒ[] orange
aste	word final	[]eɪst[]	chaste, lambaste, paste, taste	[]æst[]	cineaste, caste (GA), pleonaste	[]ɑːst[] (out)caste (RP) []əsteɪ[] namaste
-ci	unstressed before vowel	[]ʃ[]	special, gracious	[]si[] (also []ʃ[])	species
-cqu		[]kw[]	acquaint, acquire	[]k[]	lacquer, racquet
ed	word final after []t[] or []d[]	[]ɪd,_əd[]	loaded, waited
	word final after a voiceless sound	[]t[]	piped, enserfed, snaked	[]ɛd[]	biped, underfed	[]ɪd,_əd[] naked
	word final after a lenis sound	[]d[]	limbed, enisled, unfeared	[]ɛd[]	imbed, misled, infrared	[]ɪd,_əd[] beloved
es	word final after a fricative	[]ɪz,_əz[]	mazes, washes, axes, bases, pieces	[]iːz[]	axes, bases, feces, oases
ex-	unstressed before قالب:Vr or a vowel	[]ɪɡz,_əɡz[]	exist, examine, exhaust	[]ɛks[]	exhale
gu-	before قالب:Vr	[]ɡw[]	bilingual, guano, language	[]ɡ[]	guard, guarantee
(a)isle	word final	[]aɪl[]	aisle, isle, enisle, lisle
le	word final after non قالب:Vr cons.	[]əl[]	little, table	[]l[]	orle, isle	[]leɪ[] boucle
ngue	word final	[]ŋ[]	tongue, harangue, meringue	[]ŋɡeɪ[]	merengue, distin [ك‍]gué	[]ŋɡi[] dengue
old		[]oʊld[]	blindfold, older, bold	[]əld[]	scaffold, kobold (also []ɒld[])
olk		[]oʊk[]	yolk, folklore	[]ɒlk[]	polka (RP), kolkhoz	[]oʊlk[] polka (GA)
oll		[]ɒl[]	dollhouse, pollen, trolley, holly	[]oʊl[]	tollhouse, swollen, troller, wholly	[]ɔː[] atoll (GA) []ɔɪ[] cholla []əl[] caroller, collide
olm		[]ɒlm[]	olm, dolmen	[]oʊlm[]	enrolment, holmium	[]oʊm[] holm (oak)
ong	morpheme-final	[]ɒŋ[] (RP) []ɔːŋ[] (GA)	songstress, along, strong, wronger	[]ɒŋ[]	tonger, bong, dugong, tongs	[]ʌŋ[] among
	elsewhere	[]ɒŋɡ[]	congress, jongleur, bongo, conger, ongoing, nongraded	[]ɒndʒ[] []ʌŋɡ[] []ʌndʒ[]	congeries, longevity, pongee monger, humongous, mongrel sponger, longe, spongy	[]ʌŋ[] tongue []ənɡ[] congratulate, lemongrass قالب:IPAc-en congeal, congestion قالب:IPAc-en allonge قالب:IPAc-en congé (GA)
ought		قالب:IPAc-en	bought, brought, fought, nought, ought, sought, thought, wrought	قالب:IPAc-en	doughty, drought
qu-		قالب:IPAc-en	queen, quick	قالب:IPAc-en	liquor, mosquito
que	word final	قالب:IPAc-en	mosque, bisque	قالب:IPAc-en	manque, risqué	قالب:IPAc-en barbeque قالب:IPAc-en pulque
re	word final after non قالب:Vr cons.	قالب:IPAc-en	timbre, acre, ogre, centre	قالب:IPAc-en, قالب:IPAc-en قالب:IPAc-en	cadre (GA), compadre, emigre genre, oeuvre, fiacre
ron	word final after vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	neuron, moron, interferon, aileron	قالب:IPAc-en	baron, heron, environ	قالب:IPAc-en iron قالب:IPAc-en chaperon
sci-	unstressed before a vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	conscience, luscious, prosciutto	قالب:IPAc-en	sciatica, sciamachy, sciential	قالب:IPAc-en conscientious, fasciated قالب:IPAc-en (RP) omniscient, prescience
scle	word final	قالب:IPAc-en	corpuscle, muscle	قالب:IPAc-en	mascle
-se	word final after vowel (noun)	قالب:IPAc-en	house, excuse, moose, anise, geese	قالب:IPAc-en	prose, nose, tease, guise, compromise	قالب:IPAc-en marchese
	word final after vowel (verb)	قالب:IPAc-en	house, excuse, choose, arise, please	قالب:IPAc-en	grouse, dose, lease, chase, promise
-si	unstressed after a vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	vision, occasion, explosion, illusion	قالب:IPAc-en	easier, enthusiasm, physiological
	unstressed after a cons.	/ʃ/	pension, controversial, compulsion			/si/ tarsier, Celsius
-ssi	unstressed before a vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	mission, passion, Russia, session	قالب:IPAc-en	potassium, dossier, messier
-sti	unstressed before a vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	question, Christian, suggestion
-sure	unstressed after a vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	leisure, treasure
	unstressed after a cons.	قالب:IPAc-en	tonsure, censure
-the	unstressed	قالب:IPAc-en	scathe, spathe
-ti	unstressed before a vowel	قالب:IPAc-en	cautious, patient, inertia, initial, ration	قالب:IPAc-en قالب:IPAc-en	patios, consortia, fiftieth, courtier ratios, minutia, initiate, negotiate	قالب:IPAc-en cation, cationic قالب:IPAc-en equation قالب:IPAc-en rentier (GA)
-ture	unstressed	قالب:IPAc-en	nature, picture
-zure	unstressed	قالب:IPAc-en	seizure, azure

قالب:Notelist-lr

 Sound-to-spelling correspondences

The following table shows for each sound the various spelling patterns used to denote it, starting with the prototypical pattern(s) followed by others in alphabetical order. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique (such as قالب:Vr for قالب:IPA, قالب:Vr for قالب:IPA, قالب:Vr for قالب:IPA). An ellipsis (قالب:Vr) stands for an intervening consonant.

 Consonants

Arranged in the order of the IPA consonant tables.

Consonants
IPA	Spelling	Examples
قالب:IPA	m, mm, chm, gm, lm, mb, mbe, me, mh, mme, mn, mp, sme	mine, hammer, drachm, phlegm, salmon, climb, combe, forme, mho, femme, autumn, assumption, disme
قالب:IPA	n, nn, cn, dn, gn, gne, kn, mn, mp, nd, ne, ng, nh, nne, nt, pn, sn, sne	nice, inn, cnidarian, Wednesday, gnome, coigne, knee, mnemonic, comptroller, handsome, borne, ngaio, piranha, tonne, topgallant-sail, pneumonia, puisne, mesne
قالب:IPA	ng, n, nc, nd, ngh, ngue, nh	sing, link, charabanc, handkerchief, sangh, tongue, sinh
قالب:IPA	p, pp, gh, pe, (ph), ppe	pill, apps, hiccough, thorpe, diphthong (RP),قالب:Efn-lr steppe
قالب:IPA	b, bb, be, bh, pb, gb	bit, ebb, barbe, bhang, cupboard, Igbo
قالب:IPA	t, tt, bt, cht, ct, d, dt, ed, ght, kt, pt, phth, st, te, th, tte	ten, sett, doubt, yacht, victual, iced, veldt, dressed, lighter, ktypeite, ptarmigan, phthisical, cestui, forte, thyme, cigarette
قالب:IPA	d, dd, ddh, bd, de, dh, ed, ld	dive, odd, Buddhism, bdellium, horde, dharma, abandoned, solder,
قالب:IPA	c, k, cc, cch, ch, ck, cq, cqu, cque, cu, ke, kh, kk, lk, q, qh, qu, que, x, (g)	cat, key, account, zucchini, chord, tack, acquire, lacquer, sacque, biscuit, burke, khaki, trekker, polka-dotted, quorum, fiqh, liquor, mosque, excite, (strength)
قالب:IPA	g, gg, ckg, gge, gh, gu, gue	gig, egg, blackguard, pogge, ghost, guard, catalogue
قالب:IPA	f, ff, fe, ffe, ft, gh, lf, ph, phe, pph, (u)	fine, chaff, carafe, gaffe, soften, laugh, half, physical, ouphe, sapphire, lieutenant (RP)
قالب:IPA	v, vv, f, lve, ph, u, ve, w, zv, b, bh	vine, savvy, of, halve, Stephen, quetsch, have, weltanschauung, rendezvous, Habdalah, kethibh
قالب:IPA	th, the, chth, phth, tth, h, t	thin, absinthe, chthonic, apophthegm, eighth, tanh
قالب:IPA	th, the, dd, dh, y	them, breathe, gorsedd, edh, ye (mock archaic)
قالب:IPA	s, ss, c, cc, ce, ps, sc, sce, sch, se, sh, sse, sses, st, (sth), sw, t, th, ti, (ts), tsw, tzs, tz, (z)	song, mess, city, flaccid, ounce, psalm, scene, coalesce, schism (RP), horse, dishonest, finesse, chausses, listen, asthma (RP), sword, tzitzit, zizith, Kiribati, tsunami (GA), boatswain, britzska, waltz (RP), quartz
قالب:IPA	z, zz, cz, s, (sc), se, sh, sp, ss, (sth), ts, tz, x, ze, zh, zs (one pronunciation), c (some dialects)	zoo, fuzz, czar, has, crescent (RP),قالب:Efn-lr tease, déshabillé, raspberry, dissolve, asthma (GA), tsarina, tzar, xylophone, breeze, zho, (vizsla), (electricity)
قالب:IPA	sh, c, ce, ch, che, chi, chsi, ci, s, sc, sch, sche, schsch, sci, sesh, she, shh, shi, si, sj, ss, ssi, ti, psh, zh, x	shin, speciality, ocean, machine, quiche, marchioness, fuchsia, special, sugar, crescendo, schmooze, schottische, eschscholtzia, conscience, tortoiseshell, galoshe, shh, cushion, expansion, sjambok, tissue, mission, nation, pshaw, pirozhki, paxiuba
قالب:IPA	(ci), g, ge, j, s, si, ssi, ti, z, zh, zhe, (zi), zs (one pronunciation)	coercion (GA), genre, beige, bijou, leisure, division, abscission, equation, seizure, muzhik, uzhe,قالب:Efn-lr brazier (GA), (vizsla)
قالب:IPA	ch (in Scottish English), gh (in Irish English)	loch, lough
قالب:IPA	h, wh, j, ch	he, who, fajita, chutzpah
قالب:IPA	r, rh, wr	run, rhyme, wrong
قالب:IPA	l, ll, le, lh, lle, gl, sle, ln (some dialects)	line, shall, tale, pelham, gazelle, imbroglio, aisle, (kiln)
قالب:IPA	y, h, i, j, l, ll, z, r (one pronunciation)	yes, vinho verde, onion, hallelujah, llano, tortilla, capercailzie, Februaryقالب:Efn-lr
قالب:IPAslink	wh (in some dialects)	which
قالب:IPA	w, u, h, ou, ju, wh (in most dialects)	we, persuade, choir, ouija, marijuana, what
قالب:IPA	ts, tz, zz	nuts, quartz, pizza
قالب:IPA	ds, dz, z	pads, podzol, jiaozi
قالب:IPA	ch, tch, c, cc, cch, (che), chi, cs, cz, q, t, tche, te, (th), (ti), ts, tsch, tz, tzs, tzsch, h	chop, batch, cello, bocce, kaccha, niche (GA), falchion, csardas, Czech, qi, nature, escutcheon, righteous, posthumous (GA), bastion (GA), britska (US), putsch, britz(s)ka (US), Nietzschean, sinh
قالب:IPA	g, j, (ch), d, dg, dge, di, dj, dzh, ge, gg, gi, jj, t, zh	magic, jump, sandwich (RP), graduate, judgment, bridge, soldier, adjust, Tadzhik, barge, veggies, Belgian, hajj, congratulate (US)قالب:Efn-lr, guzheng
قالب:IPA	x, xx, cast, cc, chs, cks, cques, cs, cz, kes, ks, lks, ques, xc, xe, xs, xsc, xsw	sax, doxxing, forecastle, accent, tachs, backs, sacques, sacs, eczema, burkes, yaks, caulks, toques, excel, axe, exsert, exscind, coxswain
قالب:IPA	x, ggs, gs	exam, eggs, bags

قالب:Notelist-lr

 Vowels

Nasal vowels used by some speakers in words of French origin such as enceinte (قالب:IPAc-en), are not included.

Vowels
IPA	Spelling	Examples
قالب:IPA	a, a...e, (ag), ai, al, (ar), (au), ea, ei, i, o (one pronunciation)	hand, have, seraglio (GA), plaid, salmon, sarsaparilla (GA), laugh (GA), poleax enceinte, meringue, (chometz)
قالب:IPA	a, a...e, aa, aae, aah, aahe, (ag), ah, (au), (i), o (one pronunciation), ar (one pronunciation)	father, garage, salaam, baaed, aah, aahed, seraglio (RP), blah, aunt (RP), lingerie (GA), (chometz), (schoolmarm)
قالب:IPA	i...e, ae, ai, aie, (aille), ais, ay, aye, ei, eigh, eu, ey, eye, i, ia, ic, قالب:Not a typo, ig, igh, ighe, is, oi, (oy), ui, uy, uye, y, y...e, ye	fine, maestro, krait, shanghaied, canaille (RP), aisle, kayak, aye, heist, height, deuddarn, heyduck, eye, mic, diaper, indict, tie, sign, high, sighed, isle, choir, coyote (GA), guide, buy, guyed, why, type, bye
قالب:IPA	ou, ow, ao, aou, aow, aowe, au, odh, ough, oughe, owe, iao, iau	out, now, manoao, caoutchouc, miaow, miaowed, gauss, bodhrán, bough, ploughed, vowed, jiao, chiaus
قالب:IPA	e, a, ae, ai, ay, e...e, ea, eh, ei, eo, قالب:Not a typo, oe, ue, ee (one pronunciation)	met, many, aesthetic, said, says, there, deaf, feh, heifer, jeopardy, friend, foetid, guess, (threepence)
قالب:IPA	a, a...e, aa, ae, ai, ai...e, aig, aigh, ais,, alf, ao, au, ay, aye, e (é), e...e, ea, قالب:Not a typo, ee (ée), eh, ei, ei...e, eig, eigh, eighe, er, ere, es, et, ete, ey, eye, ez, (قالب:Not a typo), (oeh), ue, uet	bass, rate, quaalude, reggae, rain, cocaine, arraign, straight, palais, halfpenny, gaol, gauge, hay, played, ukulele (café), crepe, steak, matinee (soirée), thقالب:Not a typon, eh, veil, beige, reign, eight, weighed, dossier, espaliered, demesne, ballet, crocheted, they, obeyed, chez, lingerie (GA), boehmite (GA), merengue, bouquet
قالب:IPA	a, e, i, o, u, y, a...e, ae, ah, ai, anc, ath, au, ea, eau, eh, ei, eig, eo, eou, (eu), gh, ia, ie, io, o...e, oa, oe, oh, oi, oo, op, ou, (ough), (u...e), ua, ue, (ui), uo, wa...e	tuna, oven, pencil, icon, opus, beryl, carcase, Messiah, mountain, blancmange, tuath, sergeant, bureaucrat, keffiyeh, mullein, foreign, truncheon, timeous, amateur (RP), burgh, spatial, deficient, legion, awesome, starboard, biocoenosis, matzoh, porpoise, whipoorwill, topgallant, callous, borough (RP), minute (GA), piquant, guerilla, circuit (GA), languor, gunwale
قالب:IPA	i, y, a, a...e, ai, e, ea, ee, ei, i...e, ia, قالب:Not a typo, ii, o, oe, u, u...e, ui	bit, myth, orange, chocolate, bargain, pretty, mileage, breeches, counterfeit, medicine, carriage, sieve, shiitake, women, oedema, busy, minute, build
قالب:IPA	e, e...e, i, i...e, a, ae, aoi, ay, ea, ee, e'e, ei, eo, ey, eye, قالب:Not a typo, ie...e, is, ix, oe, oi, ue, ui, uy, y	be, cede, ski, machine, bologna, algae, Taoiseach, quay, beach, bee, e'en, deceit, people, key, keyed, field, hygiene, debris, prix, amoeba, chamois, dengue, beguine, guyot, ynambu
قالب:IPA	a, o, ach, au, eau, oh, (ou), ow, e, (eo)	watch, lock, yacht, sausage, bureaucracy, cough (RP), acknowledge, entrée, cheongsam (RP)
قالب:IPA	a, al, au, au...e, augh, aughe, aw, awe, eo, (o), oa, oss, (ou), ough	bald, talk, author, cause, caught, overslaughed, jaw, awe, ealdorman, broad, crossjack, cough, bought
قالب:IPA	oi, oy, eu, oll, ooi, oye, ui, (uoy), uoye, (awy)	avoid, toy, lawyer, Freudian, cholla, rooibos, enjoyed, schuit, buoyant, buoyed (RP), (lawyer)
قالب:IPA	o, o...e, aoh, au, aux, eau, eaue, eo, ew, oa, oe, oh, oo, ore, ot, ou, ough, oughe, ow, owe, w	so, bone, pharaoh, mauve, faux, beau, plateaued, yeoman, sew, boat, foe, oh, brooch, forecastle, depot, soul, though, furloughed, know, owe, pwn
قالب:IPA	u, o, o...e, oe, oo, ou, uddi, wo, a, au (some dialects), ee (one pronunciation)	sun, son, come, does, flood, touch, studdingsail, twopence, sati, (because), (threepence)
قالب:IPA	oo, u, o, o...e, (or), oul, w	foot, full, wolf, pembroke, worsted (RP), should, cwtch
قالب:IPA	u, u...e, oo, oo...e, eew, eu, ew, ieu, ioux, o, o...e, oe, oeu, ooe, ou, ough, ougha, oup, ue, uh, ui, (uo), w, wo	tutu, flute, too, groove, leeward, sleuth, yew, lieu, Sioux, to, lose, shoe, manoeuvre, cooed, soup, through, brougham, coup, true, buhl, fruit, buoy (GA), cwm, two
قالب:IPA	u, u...e, ew, eau, eo, eu, ewe, ieu, iew, (ou), ue, ueue, ui, ut, uu, you	music, use, few, beauty, feodary, feud, ewe, adieu, view, ampoule (GA), cue, queue, nuisance, debut, vacuum, you

قالب:Notelist-lr

 Vowels followed by قالب:Angbr

Nasal vowels used by some speakers in words of French origin such as enceinte (قالب:IPAc-en), are not included.

Vowels
IPA	Spelling	Examples
قالب:IPA	ar, arr, ahr, uar	arid, marry, Fahrenheit, guarantee
قالب:IPA	ar, aar, ahr, alla, are, arr, arre, arrh, ear, er, uar, our (some dialects)	car, bazaar, tahr, topgallant-sail, are, parr, bizarre, catarrh, heart, sergeant, guard, (our)
قالب:IPA	ire, ier, igher, yer, yre, oir, uyer	fire, crier, higher, flyer, pyre, choir, buyer
قالب:IPA	our, ower	sour, tower
قالب:IPA	er, err, ur	very, merry, bury
قالب:IPA	are, aer, air, aire, ar, ayer, ayor, ayre, e'er, eah, ear, eir, eor, er, ere, err, erre, ert, ey're, eyr	bare, aerial, tahr, hair, millionaire, scarce, prayer, mayor, fayre, ne'er, yeah, bear, heir, ceorl, moderne, where, err (GA), parterre, couvert, they're, eyra
قالب:IPA	ar, er, ir, or, aur, aer	hangar, letter, elixir, author, aurora, anaerobe
قالب:IPA	er, ir, ur, ar, ear, ere, err, erre, eur, eure, irr, irre, oeu, olo, or, our, ueur, uhr, urr, urre, yr, yrrh	defer, fir, fur, dharna, earl, were, err, interred, voyeur, chauffeured (GA), birr, stirred, hors d'oeuvre, colonel, worst, adjourn, liqueur, buhrstone, purr, murre, myrtle, myrrh
قالب:IPA	ir, irr, yr, yrrh, er	spirit, mirror, tyranny, pyrrhic, erase
قالب:IPA	ere, aer, e're, ear, eare, eer, eere, ehr, eir, eor, er, ers, eyr, ier, iere, ir, oea, yer	here, chimaera, we're, ear, feared, beer, peered, lehr, weird, theory (RP), series, revers, eyrie, pier, premiere, souvenir, diarrhoea (RP), twyer
قالب:IPA	or, orr, ar, arr, aur	orange, sorry, quarantine, quarry, laurel
قالب:IPA	or, ore, aor, ar, aur, aure, hors, oar, oare, oor, oore, our, oure, owar, ohr, uor	or, fore, extraordinary, war, dinosaur, roquelaure, hors d'oeuvre, oar, soared, door, floored, four, poured, toward (GA), bohrium, fluoridate
قالب:IPA	oir	coir
قالب:IPA	urr, ur, orr, or, our	hurry, burgh, worry, thorough, courage
قالب:IPA	our	courier
قالب:IPA	oor, our, ure, ur	poor, tour, sure, rural
قالب:IPA	ure, ur, eur	cure, purity, neural

قالب:Notelist-lr

 See also

• False etymology
• Spelling bee
• List of English homographs
• The Chaos – a poem by Gerard Nolst Trenité demonstrating the irregularities of English spelling

---

قالب:Columns-start

Conventions

• English plural
• I before E except after C
• Three letter rule

Variant spelling

• American and British English spelling differences
• Misspelling
  • Satiric misspelling
  • Sensational spelling
• Spelling of disc

Graphemes

• Apostrophe
• Eth
• Long s
• Thorn (letter)
• Yogh

Phonetic orthographic systems

• English spelling reform
• Interspel
• Pronouncing Orthography

قالب:Column

English scripts

• English alphabet (Latin script)
• American manual alphabet
• Two-handed manual alphabets
• English braille
• American braille
• New York Point
• Shavian alphabet

Words in English

• Lists of English words
• Classical compound
• Ghoti

English phonology

• Regional accents of English
  • IPA chart for English dialects
• Stress and vowel reduction in English
• Initial-stress-derived noun
• Traditional English pronunciation of Latin

قالب:Columns-end

 Orthographies of English-related languages

قالب:Columns-start

Germanic languages

• Danish
• Dutch
• German
• Icelandic
• Scots

Romance languages

• French
• Italian
• Milanese
• Portuguese
• Spanish

قالب:Column

Celtic languages

• Irish
• Scottish Gaelic
• Welsh

Historical languages

• Latin
• Old Norse
• Old English

Constructed languages

• Esperanto

قالب:Columns-end

 Notes

قالب:Notelist

 References

قالب:Reflist

 ببليوجرافيا

قالب:Refbegin

• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite web
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite journal
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book
• قالب:Cite book

قالب:Refend

قالب:Description of English قالب:Language orthographies