روس الكييڤية

إذا كنت تريد other historical states known as Rus'، انظر روس.

روس الكييڤية Русь
880–1240
Rurikid princely emblems depicted on coins: يسار: Vladimir the Great (10–11th century) يمين: ياروسلاڤ الحكيم (القرن 11)
خريطة روسء الكييڤية بعد وفاة Yaroslav I في 1054
العاصمة	كييڤ (نوڤگورود حتى 882)
اللغات الشائعة	السلاڤية الشرقية القديمة Old Church Slavonic (literary) Old Norse Finnic languages
الدين	Slavic paganism (native faith of Slavs) Reformed state paganism (official until 10th century) Orthodox Christianity (official since 10th cent.) Norse paganism (locally practiced) Finnish paganism (native faith of Finnic peoples)
الحكومة	ملكية
أمير كييڤ الأعظم
• 882–912	أوليگ
التشريع	ڤچه
التاريخ
• تأسست	880
• انحلت	1240
Area
1000	1،330،000 km2 (510،000 sq mi)
التعداد
• 1000	5.4 مليون
Currency	گريڤنا
سبقها تلاها Ilmen Slavs Krivichs Chud Volga Finns Dregoviches Radimichs Eastern Polans Severians Drevlians Vyatichi Volhynians White Croats Tivertsi Ulichs خاقانية روس Principality of Kiev جمهورية نوڤگورود Principality of Chernigov Principality of Pereyaslavl ڤلاديمير-سوزدال مملكة گاليسيا-ڤولهينيا Principality of Galicia Principality of Polotsk Principality of Smolensk Principality of Ryazan Mongol Empire

روس الكييڤية (بالسلاڤية الشرقية القديمة Рѹ́сь أص‌د: [rusĭ]؛ باليونانية: Ρωσία؛ لاتينية: Russia (روسيا)، Ruthenia (روذنيا)، بالبيلاروسية: Кіеўская Русь؛ روسية: Ки́евская Русь؛ التعريب: كييڤسكايا روس ؛ أص‌د: [rusʲ]؛ أوكرانية: Ки́ївська Русь)، وعادة ما تـُكتب ببساطة روس الكييڤية Kievan Rus وأحياناً Kyivan Rus.

ترتبط بداية تأسيس الدولة الروسية بإمارة "كييفسكايا روس" التي كانت تقطنها الأقوام السلافية. وليس من قبيل الصدفة أن مدينة كييڤ تسمى ب"بأم المدن الروسية". ويعتبر روريك مؤسس أول سلالة روسية حاكمة. ففي عهد خلفه اولگ بالذات، الذي أصبح أمير كييف في عام 882، اصبحت كييڤ عاصمة روسية. وبفضل الوضع الجغرافي الملائم لهذه الإمارة استطاعت كييف السيطرة على التنقلات عبر نهر الدنيبر وروافده مما اتاح لها جمع الأتاوات من الاقوام السلافية المجاورة. وبالاضافة الى ذلك فان التجارة كانت تتم عبر الطريق النهري أي عبر أنهار الدنيبر وفولخوف ودفينا الغربي خلال فترة طويلة وكانت المصدر الرئيسي والشرط الوحيد لازدهار الروس القدماء. وكانت الدولة البيزنطية شريكتهم التجارية الى جانب مدن بحر البلطيق التجارية فضلاً عن الجيران المسلمين في الجنوب الشرقي.

 الأسماء

المقالة الرئيسية: أسماء روس وروسيا وروذينيا and روذينيا

"Rus' land" from the Primary Chronicle, a copy of the Laurentian Codex

During its existence, Kievan Rus' was known as the "Rus' land" (Old East Slavic: ро́усьскаѧ землѧ́, romanized: rusĭskaę zemlę, from the ethnonym قالب:Slavonic, Rusĭ; Medieval Greek: Ῥῶς, romanized: Rhos; عربية: الروس, romanized: ar-Rūs), in Greek as Ῥωσία, Rhosia, in Old French as Russie, Rossie, in Latin as Rusia or Russia (with local German spelling variants Ruscia and Ruzzia), and from the 12th century also as Ruthenia or Rutenia. Various etymologies have been proposed, including Ruotsi, the Finnish designation for Sweden or Ros, a tribe from the middle Dnieper valley region.

According to the prevalent theory, the name Rus', like the Proto-Finnic name for Sweden (*rootsi), is derived from an Old Norse term for 'men who row' (rods-) because rowing was the main method of navigating the rivers of Eastern Europe, and could be linked to the Swedish coastal area of Roslagen (Rus-law) or Roden. The name Rus' would then have the same origin as the Finnish and Estonian names for Sweden: Ruotsi and Rootsi.

Rus' land in the narrow sense.

  1. After Petro Tolochko

  2. After A. M. Nasonov

  3. After Boris Rybakov

When the Varangian princes arrived, the name Rus' was associated with them and came to be associated with the territories they controlled. Initially the cities of Kiev, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl and their surroundings came under Varangian control.^(p. 697) From the late tenth century, Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise tried to associate the name with all of the extended princely domains. Both meanings persisted in sources until the Mongol conquest: the narrower one, referring to the triangular territory east of the middle Dnieper, and the broader one, encompassing all the lands under the hegemony of Kiev's grand princes.

The Russian term Kiyevskaya Rus' (روسية: Ки́евская Русь) was coined in the 19th century in Russian historiography to refer to the period when the centre was in Kiev. In the 19th century it also appeared in Ukrainian as Kyivska Rus' (أوكرانية: Ки́ївська Русь). Later, the Russian term was rendered into Belarusian as Kiyewskaya Rus' or Kijeŭskaja Ruś (بلاروسية: Кіеўская Русь) and into Rusyn as Kyïvska Rus' (روسين: Київска Русь).

In English, the term was introduced in the early 20th century, when it was found in the 1913 English translation of Vasily Klyuchevsky's A History of Russia, to distinguish the early polity from successor states, which were also named Rus'. The Varangian Rus' from Scandinavia used the Old Norse name Garðaríki, which, according to a common interpretation, means "land of towns".

 التاريخ

 الأصل

انظر أيضاً: خاقانية روس

قبل تأسيس روسء الكييڤية، كانت الأراضي بين بحر البلطيق والبحر الأسود مأهولة بصفة رئيسية بالقبائل السلاڤية الشرقية. في المنطقة الشمالية حول نوڤگورود كان السلاڤ الإلمن وجيرانهم من الكريڤيتچي، الذين احتلوا الأراضي المحيطة بأعالي مياه دڤينا الغربي، الدنيپر، ڤولگا. إلى الشمال من تلك الأراضي، في مناطق لادوگا وكارليا، كانت قبيلة الچود الفنلندية. في الجنوب، في المنطقة المحيطة بكييڤ، حيث يعيش الپولان، مجموعة من القبائل السلاڤية ذات الأصل الإيراني، الدريڤلينيون إلى الغرب من نهر الدنيپر، والسڤريانيون إلى الشرق. في الغرب والشمال كان يعيش الڤياتيچيون، وإلى الجنوب منهم كانت أراضي الغابات التي استوطنها الفلاحون السلاڤيون، مما أفسح المجال للرعاة الرحل للإقامة في أراضي السهوب.

ويستمر الجدل حول ما إذا كان الروسء هم ڤرنگ (ڤايكنگ) أم صقالبة. يعود هذا الغموض بشكل كبير إلى ندرة المصادر المعاصرة. محاولات معالجة هذه المسألة بدلا من الاعتماد على الأدلة الأثرية، روايات المراقبين الأجانب، الأسطاير والأعمال الأدبية من القرون التالية. إلى حد ما يرتبط الجدل بأساطير تأسيس دول المنطقة. حسب "الآراء النورمانية" ، كان الروس اسكندناڤيون، بينما يزعم المؤرخون القوميون الروس والأوكرانيون أن الروسء هم السلاڤ أنفسهم. النظريات النورمانية تركز على المصادر المكتوبة في وقت مبكر عن السلاڤ الشرقيين، السجل الروسي الرئيس، بالرغم من أنه حتى هذا السجل لم ينتج حتى القرن 12. روايات القوميون تقترح أن الروسء كانوا موجودون قبل وصول الڤارنگنيانيون، مشيرين إلى أنه هناك عدد قليل من الكلمات الإسكندناڤية في الروسية المعاصرة وأن الأسماء الإسكندناڤية في السجلات المبكرة استبدلت قريباً بأسماء سلاڤية. ومع ذلك، فالأدلة الأثرية التي عثر عليها في المنطقة تقترح أن السكان الإسكندناڤيون كانوا موجودون أثناء القرن العاشر على أقصى تقدير. كرأي أوسط، يبدو من المرجح أن الروس الأصليون كانوا أقلية صغيرة من الإسكندناڤيين الذين شكلوا طبقة النخبة الحاكمة، بينما الأقلية الكبرى منهم كانت من السلاڤ. عند النظر في الحجج اللغوية التي قدمها الباحثون القوميون، إذا كان الروس الأوائل إسكندناڤيون، فلابد أنهم سرعان ما أصبحوا nativized، متبنين اللغات السلاڤية والممارسات الثقافية الأخرى.

أحمد بن فضلان، الرحالة العربي في القرن العاشر الميلادي، أعطى واحد من أقدم الأعمال الوصفية المكتوبة عن الروس: "كانوا طوالاً كالنخلة، شقر ومتوردون، بحيث لا يضطرون لإرتداء سترة أو عبائة؛ كان الرجالة يرتدون ملابس تغطي نصف أجسامهم فقط ويتركون إحدى اليدين بدون غطاء."ليوتپراند من سرمونا، كان مبعوثاً مرتين إلى البلاط البيزنطي (949 و968)، يعرف "الروس" على أنه نورمان (الروس، الذين نطلق عليهم النورومان بأسماء أخرى") لتفسير الاسم كمصطلح يوناني يشير إلى صفاتهم الجسدية ("A certain people made up of a part of the Norse, whom the Greeks call [...] the Russi on account of their physical features, we designate as Norsemen because of the location of their origin."). ليو الشماس، مؤرخ بيزنطي من القرن العاشر، يشير إلى الروس على أنه "سكوذيون" ويشير إلى أنهم كانوا يميلون إلى إعتماد الطقوس والعادات اليونانية.

 دعوة الڤرنگ

حسب السجل الرئيسي، أراضي السلاڤ الشرقيين في القرن التاسع كانت تنقسم بين الڤرنگ والخزر. الڤرنگ ذكرهم على أنهم فرضوا الجزية لأول مرة على السلاڤ والفنلنديين عام 859. عام 862، تمردت القبائل الفنلندية والسلاڤية في منطقة نوڤگورود على الڤرنگ، مما دفعهم للتراجع "خلفاً وراء البحر، ورفضهم دفع المزيد من الجزية، وخططوا لحكم أنفسهم". لم يكن للقبائل قوانين، إلا أنهم، سرعان ما بدءوا بشن الحروب فيما بينهم، مما شجعهم على دعوة الڤرنگ ليحكمونهم مرة أخرى ولإرساء السلام في المنطقة:

قالوا لأنفسهم، "فلنسعى للأمير الذي قد يحكمنا، الذي يفصل بيننا حسب القانون." تبعاً لذلك عادوا مرة أخرى إلى الروس الڤرنگ' … الچوديون، السلاڤ، الكريڤيچيون والڤـس ثم السايدتون والروس، "أرضنا عظيمة وغنية، لكن لا يوجد فيها نظام. أئتوا للحكم وكونوا أوصياء علينا". بالتالي، اختاروا ثلاث أشقاء من أبناء عائلاتهم، الذين أخذوا معهم جميع الروسء وهاجروا.

— السجل الرئيسي

دعوة الڤرنگ بريشة ڤكتور ڤاسنيتسوڤ: روريك وأشقاؤه سينيوس و تروڤور يصلون أراضي سلاڤ إلمن.

الأشقاء الثلاثة—روليك، سينوس، وتروڤور—نصبوا أنفسهم حكاماً في نوڤگورود، بلوزورو، وإزبورسك، بالترتيب. توفى إثنان من الاشقاء، وأصبح دوريك الحاكم الأوحد للأراضي وسلف أسرة روريك. بعد فترة قصيرة، رجلان من روريك، أسكولد ودير، طلبوا الإذن بالذهاب إلى سيزارگراد (القسنطنطينية). في طريقهم للجنوب، اكتشفوا "مدينة صغيرة على التل"، كييڤ، إستولوا عليها وحاصروا البلاد من الخزر، ووطنوا المنطقة بالمزيد من الڤاراگانيين، و"فرضوا هيمنتهم على بلاد الپولانيين."

يفيد السجل بأن أسكولد ودير استمروا في طريقهم للقسنطنطينية بصحبة قوة بحرية للهجوم على المدينة عام 863-66، حيث أمسكوا البيزنطيين على حين غرة ودمورا المنطقة المحيطة، وحسب سجلات أخرى وقع الهجوم عام 860. البطريرك فوتيوس وصف بوضوح الدمار "الشامل" للضواحي والجزر القريبة، وفي سرد آخر أكثر تفصيلاً يصف الدمار والمذابح التي وقعت اثناء الإجتياح. تراجع الروس قبل معاودة الهجوم على المدينة نفسها، إما بسبب هبوب عاصفة فرقتهم قواربهم، وعادوا للامبراطور، أو حسب رواية في وقت لاحق، بسبب معجزة بعد ظوهور البطريرك والامبراطور أمام العذراء. كان الهجوم أول لقاء وقع بين الروس والبيزنطيين ودفع البطريرك لإرسال مرتزقة إلى الشمال لمشاركة في القتال ومحاولة لتحويل انتباه الروس والسلاڤ.

 تأسيس الدولة الكييڤية

القبائل والشعوب السلاڤية الشرقية، القرنان الثامن والتاسع.

Rurik led the Rus' until his death in about 879 or 882, bequeathing his kingdom to his kinsman, Prince Oleg, as regent for his young son, Igor. According to the Primary Chronicle, in 880–82, Oleg led a military force south along the Dnieper river, capturing Smolensk and Lyubech before reaching Kiev, where he deposed and killed Askold and Dir: "Oleg set himself up as prince in Kiev, and declared that it should be the "mother of Rus' cities". Oleg set about consolidating his power over the surrounding region and the riverways north to Novgorod, imposing tribute on the East Slav tribes.

In 883, he conquered the Drevlians, imposing a fur tribute on them. By 885 he had subjugated the Poliane, Severiane, Vyatichi, and Radimichs, forbidding them to pay further tribute to the Khazars. Oleg continued to develop and expand a network of Rus' forts in Slavic lands, begun by Rurik in the north.

The new Kievan state prospered due to its abundant supply of furs, beeswax, honey and slaves for export, and because it controlled three main trade routes of Eastern Europe. In the north, Novgorod served as a commercial link between the Baltic Sea and the Volga trade route to the lands of the Volga Bulgars, the Khazars, and across the Caspian Sea as far as Baghdad, providing access to markets and products from Central Asia and the Middle East. Trade from the Baltic also moved south on a network of rivers and short portages along the Dnieper known as the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks," continuing to the Black Sea and on to Constantinople.

Kiev was a central outpost along the Dnieper route and a hub with the east–west overland trade route between the Khazars and the Germanic lands of Central Europe. and may have been a staging post for Radhanite Jewish traders between Western Europe, Itil and China. These commercial connections enriched Rus' merchants and princes, funding military forces and the construction of churches, palaces, fortifications, and further towns. Demand for luxury goods fostered the production of expensive jewelry and religious wares, allowing their export, and an advanced credit and money-lending system may have also been in place.

إمارة "كييفسكايا روس"

 العلاقات الخارجية المبكرة

 السياسة المتقلبة للسهوب

The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with the Khazars and other neighbors on the Pontic steppe. The Khazars dominated trade from the Volga-Don steppes to eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus during the 8th century, an era historians call the 'Pax Khazarica', trading and frequently allying with the Byzantine Empire against Persians and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of the Göktürk Khaganate led the Magyars and the Pechenegs to migrate west from Central Asia into the steppe region, leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and instability within the Khazar Khaganate. The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of the trade routes.

The Volga trade route (red), the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks" (purple) and other trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries (orange)

The Byzantine Empire was able to take advantage of the turmoil to expand its political influence and commercial relationships, first with the Khazars and later with the Rus' and other steppe groups. The Byzantines established the Theme of Cherson, formally known as Klimata, in the Crimea in the 830s to defend against raids by the Rus' and to protect vital grain shipments supplying Constantinople. Cherson also served as a key diplomatic link with the Khazars and others on the steppe, and it became the centre of Black Sea commerce. The Byzantines also helped the Khazars build a fortress at Sarkel on the Don river to protect their northwest frontier against incursions by the Turkic migrants and the Rus', and to control caravan trade routes and the portage between the Don and Volga rivers.

The expansion of the Rus' put further military and economic pressure on the Khazars, depriving them of territory, tributaries and trade. In around 890, Oleg waged an indecisive war in the lands of the lower Dniester and Dnieper rivers with the Tivertsi and the Ulichs, who were likely acting as vassals of the Magyars, blocking Rus' access to the Black Sea. In 894, the Magyars and Pechenegs were drawn into the wars between the Byzantines and the Bulgarian Empire. The Byzantines arranged for the Magyars to attack Bulgarian territory from the north, and Bulgaria in turn persuaded the Pechenegs to attack the Magyars from their rear.

Boxed in, the Magyars were forced to migrate further west across the Carpathian Mountains into the Hungarian plain, depriving the Khazars of an important ally and a buffer from the Rus'. The migration of the Magyars allowed access for the Rus' to the Black Sea, and they soon launched excursions into Khazar territory along the sea coast, up the Don river, and into the lower Volga region. The Rus' were raiding and plundering into the Caspian Sea region from 864, with the first large-scale expedition in 913, when they extensively raided Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and penetrated into the Caucasus.

As the 10th century progressed, the Khazars were no longer able to command tribute from the Volga Bulgars, and their relationship with the Byzantines deteriorated, as Byzantium increasingly allied with the Pechenegs against them. The Pechenegs were thus secure to raid the lands of the Khazars from their base between the Volga and Don rivers, allowing them to expand to the west. Relations between the Rus' and Pechenegs were complex, as the groups alternately formed alliances with and against one another. The Pechenegs were nomads roaming the steppe raising livestock which they traded with the Rus' for agricultural goods and other products.

The lucrative Rus' trade with the Byzantine Empire had to pass through Pecheneg-controlled territory, so the need for generally peaceful relations was essential. Nevertheless, while the Primary Chronicle reports the Pechenegs entering Rus' territory in 915 and then making peace, they were waging war with one another again in 920. Pechenegs are reported assisting the Rus' in later campaigns against the Byzantines, yet allied with the Byzantines against the Rus' at other times.

 العلاقات الروسية-البيزنطية

Rus' under the walls of Constantinople (860), the Radziwiłł Chronicle

After the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 860, the Byzantine Patriarch Photius sent missionaries north to convert the Rus' and the Slavs to Christianity. Prince Rastislav of Moravia had requested the Emperor to provide teachers to interpret the holy scriptures, so in 863 the brothers Cyril and Methodius were sent as missionaries, due to their knowledge of the Slavonic language. The Slavs had no written language, so the brothers devised the Glagolitic alphabet, later replaced by Cyrillic (developed in the First Bulgarian Empire) and standardized the language of the Slavs, later known as Old Church Slavonic. They translated portions of the Bible and drafted the first Slavic civil code and other documents, and the language and texts spread throughout Slavic territories, including Kievan Rus'. The mission of Cyril and Methodius served both evangelical and diplomatic purposes, spreading Byzantine cultural influence in support of imperial foreign policy. In 867 the Patriarch announced that the Rus' had accepted a bishop, and in 874 he speaks of an "Archbishop of the Rus'."

Relations between the Rus' and Byzantines became more complex after Oleg took control over Kiev, reflecting commercial, cultural, and military concerns. The wealth and income of the Rus' depended heavily upon trade with Byzantium. Constantine Porphyrogenitus described the annual course of the princes of Kiev, collecting tribute from client tribes, assembling the product into a flotilla of hundreds of boats, conducting them down the Dnieper to the Black Sea, and sailing to the estuary of the Dniester, the Danube delta, and on to Constantinople. On their return trip they would carry silk fabrics, spices, wine, and fruit.

The importance of this trade relationship led to military action when disputes arose. The Primary Chronicle reports that the Rus' attacked Constantinople again in 907, probably to secure trade access. The Chronicle glorifies the military prowess and shrewdness of Oleg, an account imbued with legendary detail. Byzantine sources do not mention the attack, but a pair of treaties in 907 and 911 set forth a trade agreement with the Rus', the terms suggesting pressure on the Byzantines, who granted the Rus' quarters and supplies for their merchants and tax-free trading privileges in Constantinople.

The Chronicle provides a mythic tale of Oleg's death. A sorcerer prophesies that the death of the prince would be associated with a certain horse. Oleg has the horse sequestered, and it later dies. Oleg goes to visit the horse and stands over the carcass, gloating that he had outlived the threat, when a snake strikes him from among the bones, and he soon becomes ill and dies. The Chronicle reports that Prince Igor succeeded Oleg in 913, and after some brief conflicts with the Drevlians and the Pechenegs, a period of peace ensued for over twenty years.

Princess Olga's avenge to the Drevlians, Radziwiłł Chronicle

In 941, Igor led another major Rus' attack on Constantinople, probably over trading rights again. A navy of 10,000 vessels, including Pecheneg allies, landed on the Bithynian coast and devastated the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus. The attack was well timed, perhaps due to intelligence, as the Byzantine fleet was occupied with the Arabs in the Mediterranean, and the bulk of its army was stationed in the east. The Rus' burned towns, churches and monasteries, butchering the people and amassing booty. The emperor arranged for a small group of retired ships to be outfitted with Greek fire throwers and sent them out to meet the Rus', luring them into surrounding the contingent before unleashing the Greek fire.

Liutprand of Cremona wrote that "the Rus', seeing the flames, jumped overboard, preferring water to fire. Some sank, weighed down by the weight of their breastplates and helmets; others caught fire." Those captured were beheaded. The ploy dispelled the Rus' fleet, but their attacks continued into the hinterland as far as Nicomedia, with many atrocities reported as victims were crucified and set up for use as targets. At last a Byzantine army arrived from the Balkans to drive the Rus' back, and a naval contingent reportedly destroyed much of the Rus' fleet on its return voyage (possibly an exaggeration since the Rus' soon mounted another attack). The outcome indicates increased military might by Byzantium since 911, suggesting a shift in the balance of power.

Igor returned to Kiev keen for revenge. He assembled a large force of warriors from among neighboring Slavs and Pecheneg allies, and sent for reinforcements of Varangians from "beyond the sea". In 944, the Rus' force advanced again on the Greeks, by land and sea, and a Byzantine force from Cherson responded. The Emperor sent gifts and offered tribute in lieu of war, and the Rus' accepted. Envoys were sent between the Rus', the Byzantines, and the Bulgarians in 945, and a peace treaty was completed. The agreement again focused on trade, but this time with terms less favorable to the Rus', including stringent regulations on the conduct of Rus' merchants in Cherson and Constantinople and specific punishments for violations of the law. The Byzantines may have been motivated to enter the treaty out of concern of a prolonged alliance of the Rus', Pechenegs, and Bulgarians against them, though the more favorable terms further suggest a shift in power.

 سڤياتوسلاڤ

Madrid Skylitzes, meeting between John Tzimiskes and Sviatoslav

Following the death of Igor in 945, his wife Olga ruled as regent in Kiev until their son Sviatoslav reached maturity (c. 963). His decade-long reign over Kievan Rus' was marked by rapid expansion through the conquest of the Khazars of the Pontic steppe and the invasion of the Balkans. By the end of his short life, Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe, eventually moving his capital from Kiev to Pereyaslavets on the Danube in 969.

In contrast with his mother's conversion to Christianity, Sviatoslav, like his druzhina, remained a staunch pagan. Due to his abrupt death in an ambush in 972, Sviatoslav's conquests, for the most part, were not consolidated into a functioning empire, while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his sons, which resulted in two of his three sons being killed.

 الصلات التجارية لإمارة "كييڤسكايا روس" مع الخلافة العربية

تشهد الكنوز التي عثر عليها في أراضي روسيا القديمة على التجارة النشيطة التي كانت قائمة مع التجار العرب. وكانت هذه الكنوز تتضمن أساساً دراهم صكت في دولة الخلافة في القرون 7-10.

وكان نهر الڤولگا الشريان الرئيسي الذي كانت تجري منه التجارة مع العرب. وكتب المؤرخ أبو زيد البلخي (850 - 934) يقول أن الروس كانوا يتاجرون مع الخزر والروم ودولة البلغار (أسلاف تتار الڤولگا الحاليين). وحسب تصورات العرب فان الروس كانوا شعباً تجارياً إذ كانوا يبيعون الفراء والعسل والشمع والاسلحة والسيوف والنبال والرصاص ..الخ. وأشار العالم الجغرافي والكاتب العربي ابن خرداذبه في منتصف القرن التاسع قائلاً: "أما التجار الروس فهم من الصقالبة وهم يصدرون الفراء والسيوف من أصقاع سلاڤونيا إلى بحر الروم." وأكد على أن التجار الروس ينقلون الفرو عبر الأنهار وفي بعض الأحيان ينقلون بضائعهم على الجمال إلى بغداد. ولكن الصقالبة لم يورّدوا هذه السلع فقط بل وكذلك منتجات الحرفيين وأحياناً العبيد. وكان القمح من أهم مواد التجارة حيث أن الحبوب كانت تزرع سواء في المناطق شبه الغابية بجنوب شرقي البلاد (القمح) أو في الشمال الغربي ( الجودار والشعير والشوفان). وكان التجار العرب بدورهم يذهبون الى كييڤ ومعهم سلع الترف مثل المصوغات الذهبية والفضية والخرز والاطواق. وغالباً ما كان التجار الروس يعملون كوسطاء في التجارة بين الشرق والغرب.

 التأثير الديني البيزنطي على ثقافة الروس

الأحد في روسيا القديمة، بريشة واسيلي كاندينسكي، 1904.

مارست الصلات التجارية والثقافية بين إمارة كييف وبيزنطة دوراً مفصلياً في تطور هذه الإمارة. ففي العامين 988-989 تم اعتناق المسيحية الأرثوذكسية التي جلبت من بيزنطة في سنوات حكم الأمير المعظم ڤلاديمير (980-1015). ثم ظهر فيما بعد سلك الرهبنة. وقد أصبحت الأديرة الأرثوذكسية مراكز ثقافية هامة. ففي روسيا وبتأثير الفنون التشكيلية البيزنطية أصبحت تتطور فنون رسم الايقونات والزخرفة بالفسيفساء والرسوم الجدارية. كما ظهر أسلوب كنيسي روسي خاص في الفن المعماري الكنسي المتميز بالقبة على شكل بصلة.

كنيسة the Intercession على النيرل (Intercession على النيرل، القرن 12)، مثال رائع لعمارة ڤلاديمير-سوزدال.

 ظهور أول لائحة حقوقية في روسيا

ياروسلاڤ الحكيم

في عام 1019 اصبح ياروسلاڤ الحكيم ( 1019-1054) ابن ڤلاديمير في منصب الامير المعظم ً بعد مصرع أشقائه في الحروب الداخلية. وفي عهد ياروسلاف تم وضع أول لائحة قانونية سميت بـ"روسكايا پراڤدا" (الحقوق الروسية). وقد استندت هذه اللائحة على التشريع القبائلي الصقالبي مع بعض العناصر البيزنطية. وتم توثيق نظام الوراثة في سلالة روريك في عهد ياروسلاڤ الحكيم. وتجلى هذا النظام في نقل لقب الأمير المعظم الى الأبناء البكر في الأسرة.

وكانت السلالة الحاكمة تقيم في كييف وتفرض سيطرتها على المدن والإمارات الأخرى بمساعدة الأرستقراطية العسكرية التي كان الأمير المعظم يختار أفرادها.

وقد لعب المجلس الشعبي "فيتشه" المؤلف من ممثلي الأشراف دوراً كبيراً في قضايا الإدارة المحلية لمدن روسيا. وخلال القرن 11 كان اهالي مدينة "نوڤگورود" يخرجون تدريجياً من تحت السيطرة المباشرة لإمارة كييڤ. ومنذ عام 1136 حين طرد مجلس (فيتشه) أمير كييڤ ڤسيڤولود ترسخ حق نوفگورود في قبول أو رفض سلطة الأمراء الذين تبعث بهم كييف اليها. وكان ألكسندر نيڤسكي من أبرز حكام نوڤگورود، حيث وقف بهمة ونشاط ضد محاولات الصليبيين للسيطرة على الأراضي الأرثوذكسية. وقد الحق نيفسكي هزيمة شنعاء بالجيش السويدي في معركة جرت عام 1240 عند نهر نيفا ثم هزم فرسان التفنون أثناء معركة طاحنة عند بحيرة تشودسكي المعروفة بإسم واقعة الجليد عام 1242.

 انحلال إمارة كييڤ ونقل العاصمة من كييڤ إلى ڤلاديمير

ڤلاديمير الثاني مونوماخ

كان ڤلاديمير الثاني مونوماخ (1113-1125) آخر حكام كييڤ الأقوياء، حيث لم يقتصر حكمه على منع انهيار إمارة كييڤسكايا روس، بل وصد هجمات القبائل الرحل. وبعد وفاة ابنه مستيسلاڤ الأول (1125-1132) بدأت هذه الإمارات بالتفكك، فانقسمت إلى إمارات صغيرة وعديدة. وفي عام 1169 جرى نقل العرش من كييڤ إلى ڤلاديمير، حيث نشأت إمارة ڤلاديمير-سوزدال. وبعد ذلك بدأت تتدهور أحوال المدن التجارية الواقعة على ضفاف نهر "دنيبر" لسنوات طويلة.

 المجتمع

 الثقافة

Administering justice in Kievan Rus', by Ivan Bilibin

المقالة الرئيسية: Culture of Kievan Rus'

انظر أيضاً: Kievan Rus' law; Russkaya Pravda; and Demographic history of Russia § Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion and vassalage

The lands of Kievan Rus' were mostly made up of forests and steppes (see East European forest steppe and Central European mixed forests), while its main rivers all originated in the Valdai Hills: the Dnieper, and primarily populated by Slavic and Finnic tribes. All tribes were hunter-gatherers to a certain degree, but the Slavs were primarily agriculturalists, growing cereal grains and crops, as well as raising livestock. Before the emergence of the Kievan state, these tribes had their own leaders and gods, and interaction between tribes was occasionally marked either by trading goods or fighting battles. The most valuable commodities traded were captive slaves and fur pelts (usually in exchange for silver coins or oriental finery), and common trade partners were Volga Bolghar, Khazar Itil and Byzantine Chersonesus. By the early 9th century, bands of Scandinavian adventurers known as Varangians and later Rus' started plundering various (Slavic) villages in the region, later extracting tribute in exchange for protection against pillaging by other Varangians. Over time, these relationships of tribute for protection evolved into more permanent political structures: the Rus' lords became princes and the Slavic populace their subjects.

 الاقتصاد

للمزيد من المعلومات: Money of Kievan Rus'

Gathering tribute. 1908 painting by Nicholas Roerich.

In the early 10th century, Kievan Rus' mainly traded with other tribes in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. "There was little need for complex social structures to carry out these exchanges in the forests north of the steppes. So long as the entrepreneurs operated in small numbers and kept to the north, they did not catch the attention of observers or writers". The Rus' also had strong trading ties to Byzantium, particularly in the early 900s, as treaties in 911 and 944 indicate. These treaties deal with the treatment of runaway Byzantine slaves and limitations on the amounts of certain commodities such as silk that could be bought from Byzantium. The Rus' used log rafts floated down the Dnieper River by Slavic tribes for the transport of goods, particularly slaves to Byzantium.

During the Kievan era, trade and transport depended largely on networks of rivers and portages. By this period, trade networks had expanded to cater to more than just local demand. This is evidenced by a survey of glassware found in over 30 sites ranging from Suzdal, Drutsk and Beloozero, which found that a substantial majority was manufactured in Kiev. Kiev was the main depot and transit point for trade between itself, Byzantium and the Black Sea region. Even though this trade network had already been existent, the volume of which had expanded rapidly in the 11th century. Kiev was also dominant in internal trade between the towns of Rus'; it held a monopoly on glassware products (glass vessels, glazed pottery and window glass) up until the early- to mid-12th century until which it lost its monopoly to the other towns in Rus'. Inlaid enamel production techniques was borrowed from Byzantine. Byzantine amphorae, wine and olive oil have been found along the middle Dnieper, suggesting trade between Kiev, along trade towns to Byzantium.

In winter, the ruler of Kiev went out on rounds, visiting Dregovichs, Krivichs, Drevlians, Severians, and other subordinated tribes. Some paid tribute in money, some in furs or other commodities, and some in slaves. This system was called poliudie.

 الدين

للمزيد من المعلومات: Culture of Kievan Rus' § Religion, and Conversion of Vladimir the Great

Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk (rebuilt in the mid-18th century after destruction by the Russian army)

Cathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod, mid-11th century

Dormition Cathedral, Vladimir, 1160

According to Martin (2009), 'Christianity, Judaism, and Islam had long been known in these lands, and Olga personally converted to Christianity. When Vladimir assumed the throne, however, he set idols of Norse, Slav, Finn, and Iranian gods, worshipped by the disparate elements of his society, on a hilltop in Kiev in an attempt to create a single pantheon for his people. But for reasons that remain unclear he soon abandoned this attempt in favour of Christianity.'

 العمارة

المقالة الرئيسية: عمارة روسي الكييفية

انظر أيضاً: List of buildings of pre-Mongol Kievan Rus'

The architecture of Kievan Rus' is the earliest period of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian architecture, using the foundations of Byzantine culture, but with great use of innovations and architectural features. Most remains are Russian Orthodox churches or parts of the gates and fortifications of cities.

 التقسيمات الإدارية

انظر أيضاً: List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine

Kievan Rus' in 1015–1113

The East Slavic lands were originally divided into princely domains called zemlias, "lands", or volosts (from a term meaning "power" or "government"). A smaller clan-sized unit was called a verv, or pogost, headed by a kopa or viche.

From the 11th to 13th centuries the principalities were divided into volosts, its centre usually called a pryhorod (or Gord a fortified settlement). A volost consisted of several vervs or hromadas (commune or community). A local official was called a volostel or starosta.

Yaroslav the Wise assigned priority to the major principalities to reduce familial conflict over succession.

1. Principality of Kiev and Novgorod, for the eldest son Iziaslav I of Kiev, who became grand prince.
2. Principality of Chernigov and Tmutarakan, for Sviatoslav II of Kiev
3. Principality of Pereyaslavl and Rostov-Suzdal, for Vsevolod I of Kiev
4. Principality of Smolensk, for Vyacheslav Yaroslavich
5. Principality of Volhynia, for Igor Yaroslavich

Not mentioned by Yaroslav were Principality of Polotsk, ruled by Yaroslav's older brother Iziaslav of Polotsk that was to remain under the control of his descendants, and the Principality of Galicia, eventually taken by the dynasty of his grandson Rostyslav.

 العلاقات الخارجية

 التاريخ العسكري

للمزيد من المعلومات: List of wars involving Kievan Rus'

 Steppe peoples

From the 9th century on, the Pecheneg nomads had an uneasy relationship with Kievan Rus'. For over two centuries they launched sporadic raids into Rus', which sometimes escalated into full-scale wars, such as the 920 war on the Pechenegs by Igor of Kiev, reported in the Primary Chronicle, but there were also temporary military alliances e.g., the 943 Byzantine campaign by Igor. In 968, the Pechenegs attacked and besieged the city of Kiev.

Boniak was a Cuman khan who led a series of invasions on Kievan Rus'. In 1096, Boniak attacked Kiev, plundered the Kiev Monastery of the Caves, and burned down the prince's palace in Berestovo. He was defeated in 1107 by Vladimir Monomakh, Oleg, Sviatopolk and other princes of Rus'.

 الإمبراطورية البيزنطية

انظر أيضاً: Rus'–Byzantine War

Byzantium quickly became the main trading and cultural partner for Kiev, but relations were not always friendly. One of the largest military accomplishments of the Rurikid dynasty was the attack on Byzantium in 960. Pilgrims of the Rus' had been making the journey from Kiev to Constantinople for many years, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, believed that this gave them significant information about the arduous parts of the journey and where travelers were most at risk, as would be pertinent for an invasion. This route took travelers through domain of the Pechenegs, journeying mostly by river. In June 941, the Rus' staged a naval ambush on Byzantine forces, making up for their smaller numbers with small, maneuverable boats. These boats were ill-equipped for the transportation of large quantities of treasure, suggesting that looting was not the goal. The raid was led, according to the Primary Chronicle, by a king called Igor. Three years later, the treaty of 944 stated that all ships approaching Byzantium must be preceded by a letter from the Rurikid prince stating the number of ships and assuring their peaceful intent. This not only indicates fear of another surprise attack, but an increased Kievan presence in the Black Sea.

 المنغول

انظر أيضاً: Schechter Letter and Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

The sacking of Suzdal by Batu Khan

The Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus' in the 13th century, devastating numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir and Kiev. The siege of Kiev in 1240 by the Mongols is generally understood as the end of Kievan Rus'. Batu Khan went on to subjugate Galicia and Volhynia, raid Poland and Hungary, and founded the Golden Horde at Sarai in 1242. The conquests mostly halted due to a succession crisis following khan Ogedei's death, leading Batu to return to Mongolia to select the clan's next overlord.

 تقييم تاريخي

The field of Igor Svyatoslavich's battle with the Polovtsy, by Viktor Vasnetsov

Kievan Rus', although sparsely populated compared to Western Europe, was not only the largest contemporary European state in terms of area but also culturally advanced. Literacy in Kiev, Novgorod and other large cities was high. Novgorod had a sewage system and wood pavement not often found in other cities at the time. The Russkaya Pravda confined punishments to fines and generally did not use capital punishment. Certain rights were accorded to women, such as property and inheritance rights.

The economic development of Kievan Rus' may be reflected in its demographics. Scholarly estimates of Kiev's population around 1200 range from 36,000 to 50,000 (at the time, Paris had about 50,000, and London 30,000). Novgorod had about 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants in 1000, and about double that number by 1200, while Chernigov had a larger land area than both Kiev and Novgorod at the time, and is therefore estimated have had even more inhabitants. Constantinople, then one of the largest cities in the world, had a population of about 400,000 around 1180. Soviet scholar Mikhail Tikhomirov calculated that Kievan Rus' had around 300 urban centres on the eve of the Mongol invasion.

Kievan Rus' also played an important genealogical role in European politics. Yaroslav the Wise, whose stepmother belonged to the Macedonian dynasty that ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, married the only legitimate daughter of the king who Christianized Sweden. His daughters became queens of Hungary, France and Norway; his sons married the daughters of a Polish king and Byzantine emperor, and a niece of the Pope; and his granddaughters were a German empress and (according to one theory) the queen of Scotland. A grandson married the only daughter of the last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Thus the Rurikids were a well-connected royal family of the time.

Serhii Plokhy (2006) proposed to "denationalize" Kievan Rus': contrary to what modern nationalist interpretations had been doing, he argued for 'separating Kievan Rus' as a multi-ethnic state from the national histories of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. This applies to the word Rus' and to the concept of the Rus' Land.' According to Halperin (2010), 'Plokhy's approach does not invalidate analysis of rival claims by Muscovy, Lithuania or Ukraine to the Kievan inheritance; it merely relegates such pretensions entirely to the realm of ideology.'

 في الثقافة الشعبية

• Finnish folk metal band Turisas has produced various songs on its albums The Varangian Way (2007) and Stand Up and Fight (2011) which feature Scandinavian names (Jarisleif in "In the Court of Jarisleif" for Grand Prince Yaroslav) and Old Norse exonyms for toponyms (such as Holmgard in "To Holmgard and Beyond" for Veliky Novgorod, and Miklagard in "Miklagard Overture" for Constantinople) connected to Kievan Rus'. According to Bosselmann (2018) and DiGioia (2020), Scandinavian names are used by Turisas 'as a way to convey the historical context of the songs' subject matter', namely 'the stories of the Scandinavian pre-Christian populations and their travels eastwards along the way known as the Way of the Varangians to the Greek to Constantinople'.

 معرض

 مجموعة خرائط

• 

  Map of 8th- to 9th-century Rus' by Leonard Chodzko (1861)

• 

  Map of 9th-century Rus' by Antoine Philippe Houze (1844)

• 

  Map of 9th-century Rus' by F. S. Weller (1893)

• 

  Map of Rus' in Europe in 1000 (1911)

• 

  Map of Rus' in 1097 (1911)

• 

  Map of 1139 by Joachim Lelewel; northeast is identified as "trans-forest colonies" (Zalesie)

• 

  Fragment of the 1154 Tabula Rogeriana by Muhammad al-Idrisi

• 

  Overview of principalities of Kievan Rus'

 الفنون والعمارة

• 

  Ship burial of a Rus' chieftain as described by the Arab traveler Ahmad ibn Fadlan, who visited north-eastern Europe in the 10th century.
  Henryk Siemiradzki (1883)

• 

  Model of the original Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv; used on modern 2 hryvni of Ukraine

• 

  The Nativity, a Kievan (possibly Galician) illumination from the Gertrude Psalter

• 

  Rider armor and horse equipment. Iron, 12th–13th centuries, S. Lipovets, Kiev province, mound 264, military burial. State Hermitage Museum.

 انظر أيضاً

• De Administrando Imperio – 10th-century Byzantine source written by emperor Constantine VII
• History of Belarus
• تاريخ روسيا
• تاريخ أوكرانيا
• Rus' chronicle – genre of Old East Slavic literature
• Slavic studies
• European Russia

 المصادر

روسيا اليوم

 الأقسام الادارية لروس

القرن الحادي عشر

• أرض نوڤگورود (الأرض الحليفة لروس الكييڤية، منذ جمهورية 1136)
• إمارة روستوڤ-سوزدال (لاحقاً إمارة ڤلاديمير-سوزدال)
• إمارة پولاتسك (أرض انفصالية، ذات سلطة جزئية تحت روس الكييڤية)
• إمارة سمولنسك (منذ 1054)
• إمارة پرياسلاڤ
• إمارة ڤولين
• إمارة كييڤ
  • إمارة گاليچ (تحت سلطة كييڤ)
  • إمارة توراو-پنسك (تحت سلطة كييڤ)
• إمارة چرنيهيڤ
  • إمارة موروم-ريازان (حتى 1078 تحت سلطة چرنيهيڤ)
  • إمارة نوڤگورود-سيڤرسك (تحت سلطة چرنيهيڤ)
• مدينة تموتاراكان (منذ 988 وحتى زمن ما في القرن 12)
• مدينة البرج الأبيض (بيلا ڤژا) (منذ 965 وحتى زمن ما في القرن 12)
• التوابع الجنوبية (أولشكي، گاليچ الجديدة، پرسچن)

 انظر أيضاً

• روسء (شعب)
• روس (اسم)
• قائمة الحكام الاوكرانيين
• قائمة الحكام الروس
• أسرة روريك
• حكام روس الكييڤية
• تاريخ اوكرانيا
• تاريخ روسيا
• De Administrando Imperio
• درع اوكرانيا

 للاستزادة

• Christian, David. A History of Russia, Mongolia and Central Asia. Blackwell, 1999.
• Franklin, Simon and Shepard, Jonathon, The Emergence of Rus, 750–1200. (Longman History of Russia, general editor Harold Shukman.) Longman, London, 1996. ISBN 0-582-49091-X
• Fennell, John, The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200–1304. (Longman History of Russia, general editor Harold Shukman.) Longman, London, 1983. ISBN 0-582-48150-3
• Jones, Gwyn. A History of the Vikings. 2nd ed. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1984.
• Martin, Janet, Medieval Russia 980–1584. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993. ISBN 0-521-36832-4
• Obolensky, Dimitri, The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe 500–1453. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1971. ISBN 0-297-00343-7
• Pritsak, Omeljan. The Origin of Rus'. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991.
• Stang, Håkon. The Naming of Russia. Meddelelser, Nr. 77. Oslo: University of Oslo Slavisk-baltisk Avelding, 1996.

 المصادر

• This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain. - Russia

 وصلات خارجية

• Historical map of Kyiv Rus' from 980. to 1054.
• Historical map of Rus'-Ukraine from 1220. to 1240.
• Graphic History of Kievan Rus from c. 800 to 988
• Rus’, Encyclopedia of Ukraine
• Ancient Rus: trade and crafts