ريو جراند

Coordinates: 25°57′22″N 97°8′43″W / 25.95611°N 97.14528°W / 25.95611; -97.14528
(تم التحويل من Rio Grande)
"Río Bravo" redirects here. For other uses, see Rio Grande (disambiguation) and Río Bravo (disambiguation).
"Rio Grande del Norte" redirects here. For the Brazilian state, see Rio Grande do Norte. For the Brazilian city, see Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul.
يجب ألا يـُخلـَط بينها وبين ريو جراند (توضيح).
ريو گراند
Río Bravo del Norte (in إسپانية), Tooh Ba'áadii (in Navajo), Kótsoi (in Jicarilla Apache)
Rio Grande in Big Bend NP.jpg
الريو جراند عند منتزه بيج بند الوطني،
على الحدود الأمريكية-المكسيكية
Riogranderivermap.png
خريطة حوض تصريف الريو جراند
الاسم المحليError {{native name}}: an IETF language tag as parameter {{{1}}} is required (help)
الموقع
البلدالولايات المتحدة، المكسيك
الولاياتكولورادو، نيومكسيكو, تكساس، چي‌واوا، كواويلا، نويڤو ليون، تاماوليپاس
السمات الطبيعية
المنبعمنبع الجذع الرئيسي: جبل كانبي، الفاصل القاري
 ⁃ الموقعجبال سان خوان، غابة ريو گراند الوطنية،[1] كولورادو، الولايات المتحدة
 ⁃ الإحداثيات37°47′51″N 107°32′35″W / 37.79750°N 107.54306°W / 37.79750; -107.54306[3]
 ⁃ المنسوب12،000 ft (3،700 m)[1]
2nd sourceأبعد مصدر: Pole creek, أعلى قمة تندرا 13450، الفاصل القاري[4]
 ⁃ الموقعجبال سان خوان، غابة ريو گراند الوطنية،[1] كولورادو، الولايات المتحدة
 ⁃ الإحداثيات37°51′6″N 107°25′28″W / 37.85167°N 107.42444°W / 37.85167; -107.42444
 ⁃ المنسوب12،760 ft (3،890 m)
المصبخليج المكسيك
 - الموقع
مقاطعة كاميرون، تكساس؛ ماتاموروس، تاماوليپاس
 - الإحداثيات
25°57′22″N 97°8′43″W / 25.95611°N 97.14528°W / 25.95611; -97.14528[3]
 - المنسوب
0 units?
الطول1،896 mi (3،051 km)[1]
مساحة الحوض182،200 sq mi (472،000 km2)[5]
التدفق 
 ⁃ الموقعإيجل باس، تكساس – Piedras Negras, Coahuila[2]
 ⁃ المتوسط2،403 cu ft/s (68.0 m3/s)[2]
 ⁃ أدنى تدفق24 cu ft/s (0.68 m3/s)
 ⁃ أقصى تدفق964،000 cu ft/s (27،300 m3/s)
سمات الحوض
الروافد 
 - اليسرىنهر رد، ريو هوندو، ريو پويبلو دي تاوس، غدير إمبودو، نهر سانتا فى، Galisteo Creek, Alamito Creek, Terlingua Creek، نهر پكوس، نهر دڤلز
 - اليمنىنهر كونيجوس، ريو چاما، Jemez River, Rio Puerco، ريو كونچوس، ريو سالادو، ريو ألامو، نهر سان خوان
Invalid designation
النوعWild 150.1 ميل (241.6 km)
Scenic 108.5 ميل (174.6 km)
Recreational 0.8 ميل (1.3 km)
التوصيفOctober 2, 1968[7]

ريو گراند Rio Grande ( []ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrænd[]; إسپانية: Río Bravo del Norte أو ريو براڤو، النطق الإسپاني: [ˈri.o ˈβra.βo])، هو نهر يتدفق من جنوب غرب كلورادو في الولايات المتحدة ويصب في خليج المكسيك. على امتداده يشكل النهر جزء من الحدود الأمريكية المكسيكية. حسب اللجنة الدولية للحدود والمياه، كان إجمالي طوله في أواخر الثمانينيات 3.051 كم، بالرغم من أن بعض التحويلات في مسار النهر قد تؤدي إلى زيادة في طوله. تبعاً لطريقة القياس، فنهر ريو گراند هو رابع أو خامس أطول نهر في أمريكا الشمالية.[1]

يعتبر النهر حدود طبيعية بين ولاية تكساس الأمريكية وولايات چي‌واوا، كواويلا، نويڤو ليون، وتاماوليپاس المكسيكية. هناك امتداد صغير للنهر يمثل الحدود بين ولايتي تكساس ونيومكسيكو الأمريكيتين. منذ منتصف القرن العشرين، أدى الاستهلاك المتزايد للمياه في الحقول والمدن على طول النهر إلى بقاء 20% فقد من الفائض الطبيعي للنهر لتتدفق إلى خليج المكسيك. بالقرب من مصبه، يوجد وادي ريو گراند الذي يمثل منطقة زراعية هامة. ريو گراند هو واحد من 19 مسطح مائي عظيم معترف به من قبل الائتلاف الأمريكي للمياه العظمى.[8]

الجغرافيا

كيف حصلت المكسيك على أراضٍ من الولايات المتحدة دون إطلاق رصاصة واحدة؟.

The Rio Grande rises in the western part of Rio Grande National Forest, in the U.S. state of Colorado, and is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain, in the San Juan Mountains, due east of the Continental Divide of the Americas. From the Continental Divide, the Rio Grande flows through the San Luis Valley, then south into New Mexico, and passes through the Rio Grande Gorge, near Taos, then toward Española, afterwards collecting additional waters from the Colorado River basin via the San Juan-Chama Diversion Project and from the Rio Chama. The Rio Grande then continues southwards, irrigating the farmlands in the Middle Rio Grande Valley through the desert cities of Albuquerque and Las Cruces in New Mexico, to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, in Mexico. In the Albuquerque metropolitan area, the Rio Grande flows by historic Pueblo villages, such as Sandia Pueblo and Isleta Pueblo. South of El Paso, the Rio Grande is the national border between the U.S. and Mexico.

A riverine islet in the Rio Grande, seen from North Valley, New Mexico.
الريو جراند في منتزه بيج بند الوطني.

The segment of the river that forms the international border ranges from 889 إلى 1،248 ميل (1،431 إلى 2،008 km), depending on how the river is measured.[1] The Rio Conchos is a major tributary of the Rio Grande, with its confluence 310 km. (193 straight air miles) southeast of El Paso near Ojinaga, in Chihuahua, Mexico. Downstream, other tributaries include the Pecos River and Devils River, both entering the Rio Grande from the north in the vicinity of Amistad Reservoir in Texas, and the Rio Salado and Rio San Juan both entering from the south with confluences in Tamaulipas, Mexico.

The Rio Grande rises in high mountains and flows for much of its length at high elevation; the valley floor at Albuquerque is 5،312 أقدام (1،619 m), and El Paso 3،762 أقدام (1،147 m) above sea level. In New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From Albuquerque southward, the river flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is particularly extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico. During portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar. In the fall of 2003, the sandbar was cleared by high river flows around 7،063 cubic feet per second (200 m3/s).[2]

The Rio Grande flows through a valley with diverse animal and plants communities. Conservation of the river and the valley is a recurring theme for people who live in the region.[9]

الملاحة

Although the river's greatest depth is 60 أقدام (18 m), the Rio Grande generally cannot be navigated by passenger riverboats or by cargo barges. Navigation is only possible near the mouth of the river, in rare circumstances up to Laredo, Texas.[10]

Navigation was active during much of the 19th century,[11] with over 200 different steamboats operating between the river's mouth close to Brownsville and Rio Grande City, Texas. Many steamboats from the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers were requisitioned by the U.S. government and moved to the Rio Grande during the Mexican–American War in 1846. They provided transport for the U.S. Army, under General Zachary Taylor, to invade Monterrey, Nuevo León, via Camargo Municipality, Tamaulipas. Army engineers recommended that with small improvements, the river could easily be made navigable as far north as El Paso.[بحاجة لمصدر] Those recommendations were never acted upon.

Rio Grande in west El Paso near the New Mexico state line

The Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge, a large swing bridge, dates back to 1910 and is still in use today by automobiles connecting Brownsville with Matamoros, Tamaulipas. The swing mechanism has not been used since the early 1900s, though, when the last of the big steamboats disappeared. At one point, the bridge also had rail traffic. Railroad trains no longer use this bridge. A new rail bridge (West Rail International Crossing) connecting the U.S. and Mexico was built about 15 miles west of the Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge. It was inaugurated in August 2015. It moved all rail operations out of downtown Brownsville and Matamoros.[12] The West Rail International Crossing is the first new international rail crossing between the U.S. and Mexico in over a century.[13] The Brownsville & Matamoros International Bridge is now operated by the Brownsville and Matamoros Bridge Company, a joint venture between the Mexican government and the Union Pacific Railroad.

Rio Grande Gorge in Central New Mexico

At the mouth of the Rio Grande, on the Mexican side, was the large commercial port of Bagdad, Tamaulipas. During the American Civil War, this was the only legitimate port of the Confederacy. European warships anchored offshore to maintain the port's neutrality, and managed to do so successfully throughout that conflict, despite occasional stare-downs with blockading ships from the US Navy. It was a shallow-draft river port, with several smaller vessels that hauled cargo to and from the deeper-draft cargo ships anchored off shore. These deeper-draft ships could not cross the shallow sandbar at the mouth of the river. The port's commerce was European military supplies, in exchange for bales of cotton.

التاريخ

Ancestral Rio Grande

View of the Rio Grande from Overlook Park, White Rock, New Mexico

The sedimentary basins forming the modern Rio Grande Valley were not integrated into a single river system draining into the Gulf of Mexico until relatively recent geologic time. Instead, the basins formed by the opening of the Rio Grande rift were initially bolsons, with no external drainage and a central playa.[14] An axial river existed in the Espanola Basin as early as 13 million years ago, reaching the Santo Domingo Basin by 6.9 million years ago. However, at this time, the river drained into a playa in the southern Albuquerque Basin where it deposited the Popotosa Formation.[15] The upper reach of this river corresponded to the modern Rio Chama, but by 5 million years ago, an ancestral Rio Grande draining the eastern San Juan Mountains had joined the ancestral Rio Chama.[14]

The ancestral Rio Grande progressively integrated basins to the south, reaching the Mesilla Basin by 4.5 million years and the Palomas basin by 3.1 million years ago, forming Lake Palomas. River capture by a tributary of the Pecos River then occurred, with the Rio Grande flowing to Texas by 2.06 million years, and finally joining the Pecos River 800,000 years ago, which drained into the Gulf of Mexico. Volcanism in the Taos Plateau reduced drainage from the San Luis Basin until a spillover event 440,000 years ago that drained Lake Alamosa, forming the Rio Grande Gorge, and fully reintegrated the San Luis Basin into the Rio Grande watershed.[14]

قبل وصول الأوروبيين

ريو گراند العلوي بالقرب من كريد، كلورادو.

Archeological sites from the earliest human presence in the Rio Grande Valley are scarce, due to traditional Indigenous nomadic culture, Pleistocene and Holocene river incision or burial under the Holocene floodplain. However, some early sites are preserved on West Mesa on the west side of the Rio Grande near Albuquerque. These include Folsom sites, possibly dating from around 10,800 to 9,700 BCE, that were probably short-term sites such as buffalo kill sites. Preservation is better in flanking basins of the Rio Grande Valley, where numerous Folsom sites and a much smaller number of earlier Clovis sites have been identified.[16] Later Paleo-Indian groups included the Belen and Cody cultures, who appear to have taken advantage of the Rio Grande Valley for seasonal migrations and may have settled more permanently in the valley.[17]

The Paleo-Indian cultures gave way to the Archaic Oshara tradition beginning around 5450 BCE.[18] The Oshara began cultivation of maize between 1750 and 750 BCE, and their settlements became larger and more permanent.[17]

Drought induced the collapse of the Ancestral Puebloan culture, at Chaco Canyon and elsewhere across the Four Corners region, at around 1130 CE. This led to a mass migration of the Ancestral Puebloans to the Rio Grande and other more fertile valleys of the Southwest, competing with other indigenous communities such as the Apache with territory in the Rio Grande Valley.[19] This led to decades of conflict (the Coalition Period), the eventual merging of cultures, and the establishment of most of the Tanoan and Keresan pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley. This was followed by the Classic Period, from about 1325 CE to 1600 CE and the arrival of the Spanish. The upper Rio Grande Valley was characterized by occasional periods of extreme drought, and the human inhabitants make extensive use of gridded gardens and check dams to stretch the uncertain water supply.[20]

الاستكشاف الإسباني

Rare first state of Giovan Battista Nicolosi's four sheet map of North America, the first printed map to accurately depict the course of the Rio Grande (named Rio Escondido) flowing into the Gulf of Mexico.

In 1519, a Spanish naval expedition along the northeastern coast of Mexico charted the mouths of several rivers including the Rio Grande. In 1536, the Rio Grande appeared for the first time on a map of New Spain produced by a royal Spanish cartographer. In the autumn of 1540, a military expedition of the Viceroyalty of New Spain led by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, Governor of Nueva Galicia, reached the Tiwa pueblos along the Rio Grande in the future New Mexico.[21] On July 12, 1598, Don Juan de Oñate y Salazar established the New Spain colony of Santa Fe de Nuevo Méjico at the new village of San Juan de los Caballeros adjacent to the Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo at the confluence of the Rio Grande and the Río Chama.

منذ 1830

During the late 1830s and early 1840s, the river marked the disputed border between Mexico and the nascent Republic of Texas; Mexico marked the border at the Nueces River. The disagreement provided part of the rationale for the Mexican–American War in 1846, after Texas had been admitted as a new state. Since 1848, the Rio Grande has marked the boundary between Mexico and the United States from the twin cities of El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, to the Gulf of Mexico. As such, crossing the river was the escape route used by some Texan slaves to seek freedom. Mexico had liberal colonization policies and had abolished slavery in 1828.[22]

Railway Bridges and the Great Customs Smelter (postcard, circa 1916)

In 1899, after a gradual change to the river position, a channel was dug for flood control which moved the river, creating what was called Cordova Island, which became the center of the Chamizal dispute. Resolving the dispute took many years and resulted in a 1909 combined assassination attempt on the American and Mexican presidents.

حقوق مياه الريو جراند (1900–الحاضر)

Following the approval of the Rio Grande Project by federal lawmakers in 1905, the waters of the Rio Grande were to be divided between the states of New Mexico and Texas based on their respective amount of irrigable land. The project also accorded 60،000 فدان-أقدام (74 million متر مكعب) of water annually to Mexico in response to the country's demands. This was meant to put an end to the many years of disagreement concerning rights to the river's flow and the construction of a dam and reservoir at various location on the river between the agricultural interests of the Mesilla Valley and those of El Paso and Juárez. In the agreement provisions were made to construct Elephant Butte dam on public lands. This act was the first occurrence of congressionally directed allocation of an interstate river (although New Mexico would not achieve statehood till 1912).[23]

Bridge of the Americas from El Paso, US to Ciudad Juárez, Mexico (2016).

Following the admittance of New Mexico into the union, the increased settlement of the Rio Grande farther north in Colorado and near Albuquerque, the 1938 Rio Grande Compact developed primarily because of the necessary repeal of the Rio Grande embargo among other issues.[24] Though both Colorado and New Mexico were initially eager to begin negotiations, they broke down over whether Texas should be allowed to join negotiations in 1928, though it had representatives present. In an effort to avoid litigation of the matter in the Supreme Court a provisional agreement was signed in 1929 which stated that negotiations would resume once a reservoir was built on the New Mexico-Colorado state line. The construction of this was delayed by the Market Crash of 1929. With negotiations remaining stagnant, Texas sued New Mexico over the issue in 1935, prompting the intervention of the president who set up the Rio Grande Joint Investigation the findings of which helped lead to the final agreement.[23] The 1938 Rio Grande Compact provided for the creation of a compact commission, the creation of gaging stations along the river to ensure flow amounts by Colorado to New Mexico at the state line and by New Mexico to Elephant Butte Reservoir, the water once there would fall under the regulation of the Rio Grande Project which would guarantee provision to Texas and Mexico. A system of debits and credits was created to account for variations in the water provided.[25] The compact remains in effect today, though it has been amended twice.

In 1944, the US and Mexico signed a treaty regarding the river.[26] Due to drought conditions which have prevailed throughout much of the 21st century, calls for a reexamination of this treaty have been made by locals in New Mexico, Mexico, and Texas. Texas, being the state with the least amount of control over the waterway, has routinely seen an under-provision of water since 1992.[27]

Rio Grande southeast of Falcon Reservoir, Municipality of Mier, Tamaulipas, Mexico (August 12, 2007)

In 1997, the US designated the Rio Grande as one of the American Heritage Rivers. Two portions of the Rio Grande are designated National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, one in northern New Mexico and the other in Texas, at Big Bend National Park.

In mid-2001, a 328-قدم (100 m)-wide sandbar formed at the mouth of the river, marking the first time in recorded history that the Rio Grande failed to empty into the Gulf of Mexico. The sandbar was dredged, but reformed almost immediately. Spring rains the following year flushed the reformed sandbar out to sea, but it returned in mid-2002. By late 2003, the river once again reached the Gulf.[2]

مستقبل غامض

انظر أيضاً: Southwestern North American megadrought

For much of the time since water rights were introduced in the 1890s, the Rio Grande flowed through Las Cruces from February to October each year, but this is subject to climate change.[28] In 2020, the river flowed only from March to September.[28] As of January 2021, the Elephant Butte Irrigation District (Ebid) expected that water shortages would mean the river only flows through Las Cruces from June through July.[28] The water shortages are affecting the local ecosystem and endangering species including cottonwood trees and the southwestern willow flycatcher.[28]

A 5-mile stretch of the river ran dry in Albuquerque in 2022

The water of the Rio Grande is over-appropriated: that is, more users for the water exist than water in the river. Because of both drought and overuse, the section from Las Cruces downstream through Ojinaga frequently runs dry and was recently tagged "The Forgotten River" by those wishing to bring attention to the river's deteriorated condition.[29]

In 2022, due to increasing drought and water use, the water debt owed to Texas increased from 31,000 acre-feet to over 130,000 acre-feet since 2021, despite "very significant efforts that were done on the river this year to keep water flowing downstream."[30] In response, New Mexico increased its program offering to subsidize farmers who fallow their fields rather than planting crops, which uses additional water;[31] the city of Albuquerque shut off its domestic supply diversion and switched to full groundwater pumping in 2021.[32]

Additionally, in 2022, work began on El Vado Dam, during which it is unavailable for storage, reducing system capacity by about 180,000 acre-feet. MRGCD has requested storage of "native water" downstream at Abiquiu Reservoir, which normally only stores waters imported into the Rio Grande watershed from the Colorado River watershed via the San Juan–Chama Project.[33]

Elephant Butte Reservoir, the main storage reservoir on the Rio Grande, was reported at 13.1% of capacity as of May 1, 2022,[34] further decreasing to only 5.9% full by November 2021.[34] Nearly a year later, in October 2022, the reservoir had made only insignificant rebounds, resting at 6.4% of capacity.[34]

In late July 2022, due to extreme drought, the Rio Grande ran dry for about 50 miles in the middle Rio Grande Valley, including five miles in Albuquerque, the first time it had done so in over 40 years.[35] The following winter, the basin experienced above-average snowfall, leading to very high flows in the river in spring of 2023[36] and flooding of some of its tributaries, including the Jemez and Pecos Rivers.[37][38] By that summer, after the spring runoff had concluded and due to a failed New Mexico monsoon season and record high temperatures, the river went dry in Albuquerque for a second consecutive year.[39]

تعديلات النهر

للمزيد من المعلومات: مشروع ريو گراند
منظر لريو گراند من منتزه أوڤرلوك، وايت روك، نيومكسيكو.

The United States and Mexico share the water of the river under a series of agreements administered by the International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), US–Mexico. The most notable of these treaties were signed in 1906 and 1944.[40][41] The IBWC traces its institutional roots to 1889, when the International Boundary Committee was established to maintain the border. The IBWC today also allocates river waters between the two nations and provides for flood control and water sanitation. Use of that water belonging to the United States is regulated by the Rio Grande Compact, an interstate pact between Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas.

المعابر

المقالة الرئيسية: قائمة معابر ريو گراند

The major international border crossings along the river are at Ciudad Juárez and El Paso; Presidio and Ojinaga; Laredo and Nuevo Laredo; McAllen and Reynosa; and Brownsville and Matamoros. Other notable border towns are the Texas/Coahuila pairings of Del Rio–Ciudad Acuña and Eagle Pass–Piedras Negras.

الأسماء والنُطق

ريو گراند (ريو دل نورتى) على خريطة لعام 1718، رسم گيوم ده لإسل.

Río Grande،هو الاسم الإسپاني ويعني "النهر الكبير" وRío Grande del Norte ويعني "نهر الشمال العظيم". بالإنگليزية، Rio Grande وينطق إما []ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrænd[] أو []ˈriːoʊ ˈɡrɑːndeɪ[].


في المكسيك يشتهر باسم ريو براڤو أو Río Bravo del Norte، براڤو bravo تعني الثائر أو الهائج.

الروافد

المقالة الرئيسية: قائمة روافد ريو گراند
الرافد متوسط الفيضان الحوض
قدم³/ث !متر³/ث ميل³ كم2
نهر سان خوان 368 10[2] 12،950 33،500[2]
ريو ألامو 130 3.68[2] 1،675 4،340[2]
ريو سلادو 354 10.0[2] 23،323 60،400 [2]
ريو سان ردريگو 130 3.68[2] 1،050 2،720[2]
نهر دڤيلس 362 10.3[2] 137 355[42]
نهر پكوس 265 7.50[2] 44،402 115،000[43]
ريو كونچوس 848 24.0[2] 26،400 68،400[44]
ريو پيركو 39.5 1.1[45] 7،350 19،000[45]
نهر جيمز 59.5 1.68[46] 1،038 2،688[46]
نهر سانتافه 10.9 0.31[47] 231 598.3[47]
ريو چاما 571 16.2[48] 3،144 8،143[48]
نهر كونجوس 176 4.98[49] 887 2،297[49]

انظر أيضاً

الهواامش

  1. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح Metz, Leon C. "Rio Grande". The Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved 17 July 2010.
  2. ^ أ ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض "Water Bulletin Number 75: Flow of the Rio Grande and Related Data; From Elephant Butte Dam, New Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico". International Boundary and Water Commission. 2005. Retrieved July 17, 2010.
  3. ^ أ ب "Rio Grande". نظام معلومات الأسماء الجغرافية، المسح الجيولوجي الأمريكي.
  4. ^ Tundra Top
  5. ^ خطأ استشهاد: وسم <ref> غير صحيح؛ لا نص تم توفيره للمراجع المسماة nasqan
  6. ^ Rio Grande from the Handbook of Texas Online
  7. ^ "National Wild and Scenic Rivers System". National Wild and Scenic Rivers System. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  8. ^ National Wildlife Federation (August 18, 2010). "America's Great Waters Coalition". Retrieved 2011-18-20. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  9. ^ Sandy, John H. (January 4, 1981). "Book Review of Mountain Islands and Desert Seas: A Natural History of the U.S. Mexican Borderlands". Retrieved June 24, 2023.
  10. ^ "Rio Grande River". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 18, 2016. In some places the depth of the river has varied from nearly 60 أقدام (18 متر) to a bare trickle or nothing.
  11. ^ Tom Lea (1957) The King Ranch writes that Richard King made his fortune as a riverman on the Rio Grande before he proposed marriage to Henrietta and started his cattle ranch.
  12. ^ https://ftp.dot.state.tx.us/pub/txdot-info/iro/international-bridges.pdf page 7
  13. ^ "Our projects: West Rail". Cameron County Regional Mobility Authority. Retrieved February 20, 2022.
  14. ^ أ ب ت Repasch, Marisa; Karlstrom, Karl; Heizler, Matt; Pecha, Mark (May 2017). "Birth and evolution of the Rio Grande fluvial system in the past 8 Ma: Progressive downward integration and the influence of tectonics, volcanism, and climate". Earth-Science Reviews. 168: 113–164. Bibcode:2017ESRv..168..113R. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.03.003.
  15. ^ Koning, Daniel J.; Jochems, Andy P.; Heizler, Matthew T. (2018). "Early Pliocene paleovalley incision during early Rio Grande evolution in southern New Mesico" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 69: 93–108. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved May 20, 2020.
  16. ^ Ballenger, Jesse; Holliday, Vance; Sanchez, Guadelupe (2017). Mills, Barbara; Fowles, Severin (eds.). The Earliest People in the Southwest. Vol. 1. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199978427.013.11.
  17. ^ أ ب Vierra, B.J.; Jodry, M.A.; Shackley, M.S.; Dilley, M.J.; Bousman, C.B.; Vierra, B.J. (2012). "Late Paleoindian and early archaic foragers in the Northern Southwest". From the Pleistocene to the Holocene: Human organization and cultural transformations in prehistoric North America. Vol. 17. Texas A&M University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-1603447782.
  18. ^ Gibbon, Guy E.; Ames, Kenneth M. (1998). Archaeology of Prehistoric Native America: An Encyclopedia. New York: Taylor and Francis. p. 798. ISBN 081530725X.
  19. ^ Stuart, D.E. (2008). "The Chaco Ancestral Puebloans". Canyon Gardens: The Ancient Pueblo Landscapes of the American Southwest. UNM Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0826338600. Retrieved November 15, 2021.
  20. ^ Peckham, S. (1984). "The Anasazi Culture of the Northern Rio Grande Rift" (PDF). New Mexico Geological Society Field Conference Series. 35: 275–281. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved November 15, 2021.
  21. ^ Brand, Donald Dilworth; Schmidt, Robert H. "Rio Grande". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved September 9, 2020.
  22. ^ "The UGRR on the Rio Grande" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 25, 2004. Retrieved February 24, 2004.
  23. ^ أ ب Littlefield, Douglass (1999). "The History of the Rio Grande Compact of 1938" (PDF). WRRI Conference Proceedings 1999. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022.
  24. ^ Littlefield, Douglas R. (2012). Conflict on the Rio Grande: Water and the Law, 1879–1939 (in الإنجليزية). University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806185910.
  25. ^ Hinderlider, M.C.; McClure, Thomas M.; Clayton, Frank B. (December 19, 1939). Rio Grande Compact Commission Report (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 9, 2022.
  26. ^ "Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law: Rio Grande". Peace Palace Library. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
  27. ^ Yardley, Jim (April 19, 2002). "Water Rights War Rages on Faltering Rio Grande". The New York Times (in الإنجليزية الأمريكية). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 31, 2020.
  28. ^ أ ب ت ث Minardi, Di (January 12, 2021). "A river used to run through it: how New Mexico handles a dwindling Rio Grande". The Guardian. London. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
  29. ^ "Rio Grande Sucked Dry for Irrigation, Industry". CNN Saturday Morning News. CNN. June 9, 2001.
  30. ^ Glover, Hannah (January 27, 2022). "Despite efforts, NM's Rio Grande water debt grows". Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  31. ^ Davis, Theresa (March 20, 2022). "Emergency program pays farmers to fallow fields". Albuquerque Journal. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  32. ^ "Water Authority to stop taking water from Rio Grande due to drought". KRQE News 13. Albuquerque: KRQE-TV. June 18, 2021. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  33. ^ "El Vado Dam to undergo extensive repairs to prevent leaks". KRQE News 13. Albuquerque: KRQE-TV. Associated Press. November 23, 2021. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  34. ^ أ ب ت "Elephant Butte Reservoir". Water Data for Texas. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
  35. ^ Pratt, Sarah (August 23, 2022). "Rio Grande Runs Dry, Then Wet" (in الإنجليزية). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  36. ^ Skonieski, Alexa (April 19, 2023). "Rio Grande seeing high water levels, not expected to run dry this year in ABQ". Albuquerque: KRQE-TV. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  37. ^ Wadas, Natalie (April 14, 2023). "San Ysidro, Jemez Springs encountering rising floodwaters". KRQE News 13. Albuquerque: KRQE-TV. Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  38. ^ Mexican, New (April 19, 2023). "Forest officials warn of spring flooding on Pecos River". Santa Fe New Mexican (in الإنجليزية). Retrieved April 21, 2023.
  39. ^ Valle, Andres (30 August 2023). "Rio Grande in Albuquerque to run dry". KOAT (in الإنجليزية).
  40. ^ "Treaties Between the U.S. and Mexico". International Boundary and Water Commission. Archived from the original on 2015-06-01.
  41. ^ Thompson, Olivia N. (2009). "Binational Water Management: Perspectives of Local Texas Officials in the U.S.–Mexico Border Region". Applied Research Projects. Texas State University. Paper 313.[حدد]
  42. ^ "Devils River Protection Campaign, Devils River Conservation Easements". The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 22 July 2010.
  43. ^ Largest Rivers of the United States, USGS
  44. ^ "The Rio Conchos: An Essential Ribbon of Life". Environmental Defense Fund. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
  45. ^ أ ب "Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08353000 Rio Puerco near Barnardo, NM" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
  46. ^ أ ب "Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08329000, Jemez River below Jemez Canyon Dam, NM" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
  47. ^ أ ب "Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08317200 Santa Fe River above Cochiti Lake, NM" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
  48. ^ أ ب "Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08290000, Rio Chama near Chamita, NM" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
  49. ^ أ ب "Water resources data for the United States, Water Year 2009; gage 08249000, Conejos River near Lasauses, CO" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 21 July 2010.

المصادر

  • Coker, Caleb (1992). The News from Brownsville: Helen Chapman's Letters from the Texas Military Frontier, 1848-1852. Austin, Tex: Texas State Historical Association. ISBN 0-87611-115-0.
  • Horgan, Paul (1991). Great River: The Rio Grande in North American History (4th ed.). Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0-8195-6251-3.
  • Kearney, Milo (1995). Boom and Bust: The Historical Cycles of Matamoros and Brownsville. Austin, Tex: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-0-89015-815-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Kelley, Pat (1986). River of Lost Dreams: Navigation on the Rio Grande. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2712-5.
  • Lea, Tom (1957). The King Ranch. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-51745-4.

وصلات خارجية

مشاع المعرفة فيه ميديا متعلقة بموضوع Rio Grande (river).

قالب:Waters of Texas

?
تمّ الاسترجاع من "https://www.marefa.org/w/index.php?title=ريو_جراند&oldid=4161499"