فيلق روماني

للاستخدامات الأخرى، انظر فيلق

هذا المقال هو جزء من سلسلة عن: عسكرية روما القديمة (بوابة) 800 ق.م. – 476 م

التاريخ الهيكلي

الجيش الروماني (أنواع الوحدات والرتب, الفيالق, الردائف, الجنرالات)

البحرية الرومانية (الأساطيل, أدميرالات)

تاريخ الحملات

قوائم الحروب والمعارك

أوسمة وتكديرات

التاريخ التكنولوجي

الهندسة العسكرية (كاسترا, معدات الحصار, الأقواس, الطرق)

المعدات الشخصية

التاريخ السياسي

الاستراتيجية والتكتيك

تكتيكات المشاة

الجبهات والتحصينات (سور فاصل, حائط هادريان)

الفيلق الروماني (من اللاتينية legio "military levy, conscription," من legere — "يختار" ؛ إنگليزية: Roman legion) كان فرقة من الجيش الروماني، يتراوح عددها بين 4,000 و 6,000 رجل خلال الأزمنة المختلفة للتاريخ الروماني. وبعد أن أصبحت روما إمبراطورية كان الإمبراطور يختار قائدًا لكل فيلق وكان يعمل تحت إمرة كل قائد ستة ضباط، يُطلق عليهم المحامون العسكريون. غير أن ضباط الصف الستين من المحاربين المحنكين الذين كان يُطلق عليهم قادة المائة كانوا هم القادة الأكثر أهمية وتأثيرًا. وكان كل قائد مائة يقود وحدة من نحو مائة رجل.

قبل أواخر القرن الثاني قبل الميلاد، انقسمت الفيالق الرومانية إلى شراذم تضم كل منها 120 رجلاً، وفي ميدان المعارك كان كل فيلق يتشكل في ثلاثة صفوف من الشراذم، بحيث تكون الشراذم مثل المربعات السوداء على لوحة الشطرنج. وكانت تُتْرك مسافة بين كل شرذمة والأخرى. وقد أثبت هذا التنظيم فعاليته ضد جموع الغزاة من المحاربين، وضد القوات المعادية المتقدمة في صفوف متراصة. يقوم الرجال في الصف الأمامي من الشراذم برمي الرماح على العدو، ثم يهاجمون بسيوف مسلولة. تتحرك شراذم الصف الثاني في المساحات الفارغة لتحل محل الشراذم الأمامية. وأخيرًا يتقدم أفراد الصف الثالث بحرابهم المرفوعة لتأمين النصر.

A re-enactor as a Roman centurion, c. 70.

A re-enactor, showing a Roman miles, (2nd century).

The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117-38), showing the legions deployed in 125

في عام 107 ق.م قام قائد يسمى گايوس ماريوس بإعادة تنظيم الفيالق الرومانية في شكل كتائب بكل منها حوالي 400 رجل. كما أنه فتح الفيالق للرجال من الطبقات الأدنى. ولم يلبث أن نشأ جيش من جنود مخلصين محترفين. وقد كان بالجيش الروماني في الأيام الأولى من الإمبراطورية الرومانية نحو 30 فيلقًا. وقد شكلت تلك الفيالق العمود الفقري للجيش الروماني.

 الامبراطورية المتأخرة (من 284)

المقالة الرئيسية: الجيش الروماني اللاحق

انظر أيضاً: قائمة الفيالق الرومانية

خريطة الفيالق الرومانية في 212 م

In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy, although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old legions. The earliest legiones palatinae were the Lanciarii, Joviani, Herculiani and Divitenses.

The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine II. In addition to the elite palatini, other legions called comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses, along with the auxilia palatina, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 legiones palatinae, 70 legiones comitatenses, 47 legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111 auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47 legiones in the frontier armies. Legion names such as Honoriani and Gratianenses found in the Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from vexillationes or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73 vexillationes comitatenses; 305 other units in the Eastern limitanei and 181 in the Western limitanei. A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between the legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army was Legion V Macedonica; created in 43 BC, recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum as a legione comitatense under the title of Quinta Macedonica and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD.

According to the late Roman writer Vegetius' De re militari, each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 ballistae and 10 onagers, each manned by 10 libritors (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings.

Despite a number of organisational changes, the legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It was continued within the Eastern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to supply the increasing need for soldiers resulted in the Theme system. Despite this, the Eastern Roman armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.

 الرتب في الفيالق

انظر أيضاً: الرتب في الجيش الروماني and رتبة عسكرية § الرومان

Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the late republic (100s BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian (290ح. 290).

 كبار الضباط

• Legatus Augusti pro praetore (imperial legate): the commander of two or more legions. The imperial legate also served as the governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. Of senatorial rank, the imperial legate was appointed by the emperor and usually held command for 3 or 5 years.
• Legatus legionis (legionary legate): the overall commander of the legion. The post was usually filled by a senator, appointed by the emperor, who held command for 3 or 4 years, although he could serve for a much longer period. In a Roman province with only one legion, the legatus was also the provincial governor. In such circumstances, the legatus was dual-hatted as both legionary legate and imperial legate. The legionary legate also served as commander of the auxiliary units attached to the legion, though they were not formally a part of the legion's command structure.
• Tribunus laticlavius (broad-band tribune): named for the broad-striped tunic worn by men of senatorial rank, this tribune was appointed by the emperor or the senate. Though generally young, he was more experienced than the tribuni angusticlavii. He served as second-in-command of the legion, behind the legate. Because of his age and inexperience, he was not the actual second-in-command in battle. But if the legate died, he would take command of the legion.
• Praefectus castrorum (camp prefect): the camp prefect was third in command of the legion. Generally, he was a long-serving veteran from a lower social status than the tribunii whom he outranked, and who previously had served as primus pilus and finished his 25 years with the legions. He was used as a senior officer in charge of training a legion, though he could also command a cohort of auxiliaries.
• Tribuni angusticlavii (narrow-band tribunes): each legion had five lower-ranking tribunes, who were normally from the equestrian class and had at least some years of prior military experience. They often served the role of administrative officers. This tribunate was often a first, but optional, step in a young man's political career (see cursus honorum).

 Centurions

A historical reenactor in Roman centurion costume

The rank of centurion was an officer grade that held much responsibility. The most senior centurion in a legion was known as the primus pilus (حرفياً "first maniple"), who directly commanded the first century of the first cohort and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as a pilus prior and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as a primi ordines.

There is a story of one centurion, Petronius Fortunatus, making rank in four years, then spending the next forty-two years in twelve different legions never once serving in the primi ordines.

The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence:

• The rear triarii (rear third line)
• The forward triarii (forward third line)
• The rear principes (rear principal line)
• The forward principes (forward principal line)
• The rear hastati (rear spears)
• The forward hastati (forward spears)

The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier (each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal). Each of the three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century.

• Primus pilus: the primus pilus was the commanding centurion of the first century, first cohort and the senior-most centurion of the entire legion. (Unlike other cohorts, the first cohort had only one javelin century, instead of a "front spear" and a "back spear" century.) The primus pilus had a chance of later becoming a praefectus castrorum. When the primus pilus retired, he would most likely gain entry into the equestrian class. He was paid 60 times the base wage. Primus pilus were also paid more than an average centurion and like a narrowband tribune.
• Pilus prior: the "front file" centurions were the commanders of the 10 1st centuries within the legion, making them senior centurions of their respective cohorts. While the legion was in battle formation, the pilus prior was given command of their entire cohort. The primus pilus was also a pilus prior, and the most senior of all the centurions within the legion. These positions were usually held by experienced veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is subordinate to the primus pilus.
• Primi ordines: the "ranks of the first [cohort]" were the five centurions of the first cohort, and included the primus pilus. They, excluding the primus pilus, were paid 30 times the base wage. This rank is senior to all other centurions, save the primus pilus and pilus prior.
• Other centurions: each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to command each century of the ten cohorts. They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day-to-day life of the soldiers and issued commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the emperor or other higher-ranking officials. The cohorts were ranked from the first to the tenth and the century within each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only five centuries in the first cohort (for a total of 59 centurions and the primus pilus). The century that each centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank: command of the 1st century of the first cohort was the highest, and the 6th century of the 10th cohort was the lowest. Paid ten times the basic wage.

 Legionaries

The Roman army maintained a complex position and grading system for its soldiers that reflected the many and varied duties of the Roman army. There were three pay grades within the rank of legionary: standard, one and a half, and twice the basic pay rate.

 Standard duty positions

• Optio: one for each centurion (59–60), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command and were graded pay twice the basic wage.
• Tesserarius (guard commander): one for each century. They acted as seconds to the optios and were graded pay one and a half times the basic wage. Keeper of the watchword, administrative assistant to HQ Staff, third in command of a century. These men fought as normal soldiers when the century they were attached to was not in the vanguard.
• Decurion: commanded a cavalry unit (turma) of 10 to 30 eques legionis.
• Decanus: commanded a contubernium or ten men tent party, eight soldiers and two non-combatants. A group of four soldiers would be referred to as a quaternion.

 Special duty positions

• Aquilifer: a single position within the legion. The aquilifer was the legion's standard – or aquila (eagle) – bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. Losing the aquila was considered the greatest dishonor a legion could endure. This post therefore had to be filled with steady veteran soldiers, with an excellent understanding of the tactics of the legion. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
• Signifer: each century had a signifer (thus, there were 59 in a legion) and within each cohort the 1st century's signifer would be the senior. He was standard-bearer for the centurial signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and topped with an open hand to signify loyalty, which was a rallying point for the soldiers. In addition to carrying the signum, the signifer also assumed responsibility for the financial administration of the unit and functioned as the legionaries' banker. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
• Cornicen ("horn blower"): worked hand in hand with the signifer drawing the attention of the men to the centurial signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
• Imaginifer: a special position from the time of Augustus onwards. Carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him. He was graded pay twice the basic wage.
• Immunes: immunes were legionary soldiers who possessed specialised skills, qualifying them for better pay and excusing them from labour and guard work. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and military police were all immune soldiers. These men were still fully trained legionaries, however, and were called upon to serve in the battle lines when needed.
• Evocatus: a veteran of the Roman army who had earned his military diploma for military service, but had chosen to re-enlist. They received double pay and were excluded from regular duties, such as manual labour.

 الرواتب

Legionaries received 225 denarii a year (equal to 900 sestertii) until Domitian, who increased it to 300 denarii. In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus, who increased it to 500 denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay.

All legionary soldiers would also receive a praemia (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 denarii from the time of Augustus) and/or a plot of good farmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under Caracalla, the praemia increased to 5,000 denarii.

 Pay scales

• Caligati: a pay grade receiving standard pay
• Sesquiplicarii: a pay grade receiving one and a half standard pay
• Duplicarius: a pay grade receiving double the standard pay.

 الرموز

From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer, and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.

Reenacters portraying Roman legionaries of Legio XV Apollinaris

In Gallic War (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.

With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called imaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with the imago (image, sculpture) of the emperor as pontifex maximus.

Each legion, furthermore, had a vexillifer who carried a vexillum or signum, with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion. It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried only the vexillum, and not the aquila, and were called, therefore, vexillationes. A miniature vexillum, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or reassignment.

Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would bring the recipient much prestige.

 النظام

المقالة الرئيسية: Roman military decorations and punishments

The military discipline of the legions was harsh. Regulations were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be inflicted.

 العقوبات الصغرى

• Castigatio – being hit by the centurion with his staff or animadversio fustium (Tac. Annals I, 23)
• Reduction of rations or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration
• Pecuniaria mulcta – reduction in pay, fines or deductions from the pay allowance
• Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion
• Whipping with the flagrum (flagellum, flagella), or "short whip" – a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used by slave volunteers, volones, who constituted the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire.
• Gradus deiectio – reduction in rank
• Missio ignominiosa – dishonourable discharge
• Loss of time in service advantages
• Militiae mutatio – relegation to inferior service or duties.
• Munerum indictio – additional duties

 العقوبات الكبرى

• Fustuarium – a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty, stealing, false witness, sexual misconduct and repeating three times a same offense. The legionary would be stoned or beaten to death by cudgels, in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers or those whose lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of fustuarium who escaped were not pursued but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome. In the event that a group of legionaries are to be subjected to this punishment, the tribune would make an alteration in order to spare the majority of the accused. The tribune would first select a handful of the guilty men, and those selected would be condemned to the original penalty under the fustuarium. The remainder of the accused would then be driven out of the camp and forced to live in an undefended location for a chosen period of time; they were also limited to eating only barley.
• Decimation – according to 17th century belief (possibly folk etymology), the Romans practiced this punishment in which a sentence was carried out against an entire unit that had mutinied, deserted, or shown dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men, chosen by lots, would be beaten to death, usually by the other nine with their bare hands, who would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged to renew the military oath, the sacramentum.

 عوامل نجاح الفيلق

Reenactment: training

Montesquieu wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones".

Examples of ideas that were copied and adapted include weapons like the gladius (Iberians) and warship design (cf. Carthaginians' quinquereme), as well as military units, such as heavy mounted cavalry and mounted archers (Numidians and Parthians).

• Roman organisation was more flexible than those of many opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging from cavalry, to guerrillas, and to siege warfare.
• Roman discipline (cf. decimation), organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training, logistics, field fortification etc.
• The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage and the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns against Pyrrhus of Epirus, illustrate this.
• Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
• The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military consistent motivation and cohesion.
• Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding, maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent exercise.
• Roman military equipment (cf. Roman military personal equipment), particularly armor, was of better quality and far more ubiquitous, especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields, particularly in a prolonged engagement.
• Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare, specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications (cf. sudis, castra), was another major advantage for the Roman legions.
• Roman military training focused on the more effective thrusting of the sword rather than the slash.

 انظر أيضا

• List of Roman wars
• List of Roman battles
• List of topics related to ancient Rome
• List of Roman legions
• List of Roman auxiliary regiments
• Military history of ancient Rome
• Structural history of the Roman military
• For a more detailed analysis, as well as the Romans in battle, see the articles Roman infantry tactics and Roman military personal equipment.

 Bibliography

• Addison, Penny; Bickham, Christian; Diamond, Anthony; Thompson, Steve (2008). Humanities Dimensions History. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Pearson Education Australia. p. 135. ISBN 978-0733989247.
• Julius Caesar (2024). The Gallic War. Vancouver: Royal Classics. ISBN 9781778785009.
• Campbell, Brian (2015). "legion". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3632. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5.
• Connolly, Peter (1975). The Roman Army. Macdonald Educational. ISBN 0356051102.
• Connolly, Peter (1981). Greece and Rome at War. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0133649768.
• Cornell, T. J. (1995). The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). London: Routledge. ISBN 0415015952.
• Delbrück, Hans (1990). Warfare in Antiquity. History of the Art of War. Vol. 1. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 080329199X.
• Dupuy, Ernest; Dupuy, Trevor (1986). The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0062700561.
• Dupuy, Trevor N. (1984). The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306803844.
• Dyer, Gwynne (1985). War. New York: Crown. ISBN 0051755610.
• The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, Legions, history and location of
• Ferrill, Arther (1988). The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0500274959.
• Flavius Vegetius Renatus (2019). De Re Militari. Dubai: Harper-McLaughlin-Adet. ISBN 9781697849073.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (2001). The Punic Wars. London: Cassell. ISBN 030435967X.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (2007). The Complete Roman Army. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (2019). Roman Warfare. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9781541699236.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian (1998). The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 895715358.
• Harkness, Albert (1887). The Military System Of The Romans. New York: D. Appleton and Company. OCLC 28211854.
• Hanson, Victor Davis (2010). Carnage and Culture. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 978-2080800930.
• Keegan, John (1993). A History of Warfare. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0679730826.
• Parker, Henry Michael (1928). The Roman legions. Oxford: Clarendon press. OCLC 1151159640.
• Radin, Max (April 1915). "The Promotion of Centurions in Caesar's Army". The Classical Journal. 10 (7): 300–311. JSTOR 3287327.
• Rawson, Elizabeth (1971). "The Literary Sources for the Pre-Marian Army". Papers of the British School at Rome. 39: 13–31. doi:10.1017/S0068246200007789. ISSN 0068-2462.
• Rodgers, Nigel (2005). The Roman army : legions, wars and campaigns ; a military history of the world's first superpower from the rise of the republic and the might of the empire to the fall of the west. London: Southwater. ISBN 1844762106.
• Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray.
• Taylor, Michael J. (2014). "Roman Infantry Tactics in the mid-Republic: A Reassessment". Historia:Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. 63 (3): 301–322. JSTOR 24432811.
• Taylor, Michael J. (2020). "The Evolution of the Manipular Legion in the Early Republic". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 69 (1): 38–56. doi:10.25162/historia-2020-0003. ISSN 0018-2311. ProQuest 2328625404.
• Webster, Graham (1985). The Roman Imperial Army of the first and second centuries A.D. Totowa: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0389205907.
• Zehnter, Stefan (2012). Legion GmbH. Das Unternehmen Römische Armee. Saarbrücken: AV Akademikerverlag. ISBN 978-3639405330.

 External links

• Ross Cowan, Roman Legionary 109–58 BC: The Age of Marius, Sulla and Pompey the Great Archived 2021-05-19 at the Wayback Machine
• Ross Cowan, Roman Legionary AD 69–161
• Ross Cowan, Roman Legionary AD 284–337: The Age of Diocletian and Constantine
• The Roman Army: A Bibliography (Dr. J. P. Adams)
• UNRV's Roman Military
• Legio X – Legio X Gemina (Equites) – "Viri Clarissimi"

‐------------

 انظر أيضاً

• For a more detailed analysis, as well as the Romans in battle, see the articles [تكتيكات المشاة الرومانية]] and Roman military personal equipment.
• Auxiliaries (Roman military)
• قائمة الحروب الرومانية
• قائمة المعارك الرومانية
• List of topics related to ancient Rome
• قائمة الفيالق الرومانية
• List of Roman auxiliary regiments
• Military history of ancient Rome
• Structural history of the Roman military

 المصادر

• History of the Art of War. Vol 1. Ancient Warfare, Hans Delbrück
• Roman Warfare, Adrian Goldsworthy
• History of Warfare, John Keegan
• The Roman Army and Greece and Rome at War, Peter Connolly
• The Encyclopedia Of Military History: From 3500 B.C. To The Present. (2nd Revised Edition 1986), R. Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor N. Dupuy.
• War, Gwynne Dyer.
• The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, Trevor N. Dupuy.
• Flavius Vegetius Renatus, De Re Militari (with English translation on-line)
• Julius Caesar, The Gallic War
• William Smith, D.C.L., LL.D.: A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London, 1875.
• The Punic Wars, Adrian Goldsworthy.
• Carnage and Culture, Victor Davis Hanson
• The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation, by Arther Ferrill, 1988
• The Complete Roman Army, by Adrian Goldsworthy
• The Military System Of The Romans, by Albert Harkness
• From the Rise of the Republic and the Might of the Empire to the Fall of the West, by Nigel Rodgers
• The Roman Army at War 100 BC - AD 200 (Oxford, September 1998) by Adrian Goldsworthy

 وصلات خارجية

• The Roman Military Museum with ancient military equipment
• The Roman Army Page, Gary Brueggeman (pop-up ads)
• UNRV's Roman Military
• Essays on life in the Late Roman Army, troop types etc by members of the Comitatus Reenactment and Living history group.
• The Roman Army at Roman-Empire.net
• Legio V Living History Group in Tennessee
• Watch a Roman Legion deploy for battle