بوريوم

يجب ألا يـُخلـَط بينها وبين Borium, باريوم, or بورون.

بوريوم, ₁₀₇Bh

بوريوم
عدد الكتلة	(data not decisive)
بوريوم في الجدول الدوري
Re ↑ Bh ↓ — سيبورگيوم ← بوريوم → هاسيوم
الرقم الذري (Z)	107
المجموعة	7
الدورة	period 7
المستوى الفرعي	d-block
التوزيع الإلكتروني	[Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2
الإلكترونات بالغلاف	2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2
الخصائص الطبيعية
الطور at د.ح.ض.ق	solid (متوقع)
الكثافة (بالقرب من د.ح.غ.)	26–27 ج/سم³ (متوقع)
الخصائص الذرية
طاقات التأين	الأول: 740 kJ/mol الثاني: 1690 kJ/mol الثالث: 2570 kJ/mol (المزيد) (all but first estimated)
نصف القطر الذري	empirical: 128 pm (predicted)
نصف قطر التكافؤ	141 pm (متوقع)
خصائص أخرى
التواجد الطبيعي	synthetic
البنية البلورية	​hexagonal close-packed (hcp) (متوقع)
رقم كاس	54037-14-8
التاريخ
التسمية	after نيلز بور
الاكتشاف	مركز جي‌إس‌آي هلمهولتس لأبحاث الأيونات الثقيلة (1981)
نظائر البوريوم
النظائر الرئيسية اضمحلال توا­فر عمر النصف (t1/2) النمط نا­تج 267Bh synth 17 s α 263Db 270Bh synth 2.4 min α 266Db 271Bh synth 2.9 s α 267Db 272Bh synth 8.8 s α 268Db 274Bh synth 57 s α 270Db 278Bh synth 11.5 min? SF –

البوريوم (تحت-الرينيوم) هو عنصر كيميائي في الجدول الدوري, له الرمز Bh وعدد ذري 107. وهو عنصر إصطناعي وأكثر نظائره ثباتا Bh-262, وله فترة عمر نصف تبلغ 102 مللى ثانية.

Bohrium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Bh and atomic number 107. It is named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr. As a synthetic element, it can be created in particle accelerators but is not found in nature. All known isotopes of bohrium are highly radioactive; the most stable known isotope is ²⁷⁰Bh with a half-life of approximately 2.4 minutes, though the unconfirmed ²⁷⁸Bh may have a longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.

In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element. It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 7 elements as the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that bohrium behaves as the heavier homologue to rhenium in group 7. The chemical properties of bohrium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 7 elements.

 تاريخ

Element 107 was originally proposed to be named after Niels Bohr, a Danish nuclear/theoretical physicist, with the name nielsbohrium (Ns). This name was later changed by IUPAC to bohrium (Bh).

 الاكتشاف

تم تصنيعه في عام 1976 عن طريق فريق بحث روسي برئاسة واى.أوجانيسيان في معهد جوينت للأبحاث النووية في [دبنا]], وقد قام بتصنيع النظير ²⁶¹Bh وله عمر نصف يبلغ 1-2 مللى ثانية (بعد ذلك كانت البيانات تدور حول 10 مللى ثانية). وقد حصلوا على هذه النتائج بقذف البزموث-204 بنواة ثقيلة من الكروم-54.

وفى عام 1981 قام فريق بحث ألماني في معهد بحوث الأيونات الثقيلة في دامشتادت بتأكيد إكتشافات الفريق الروسي وأنتجوا البوريوم بفترة عمر نصف اكبر Bh-262.

وقد إقترح الألمان الإسم نيلزبوريوم على شرف الفيزيائي الدانماركي نيلز بور. بينما إقترح السوفييت هذا الإسم للعنصر 105 (دبنيوم).

وقد كان هناك جدل حول تسمية العناصر من 101 إلى 109. وقد إقترح IUPAC الإسم أنيل سيتيوم بالرمز Uns كإسم مؤقت للعنصر.

وفى عام 1994 قامت لجنة من IUPAC بإقتراح أن يسمى العنصر 107 بوريوم, بحيث يكون مثل العناصر الأخرى التى تكرم أشخاص معينيين, على أن اللجنة كانت تخشى أن يتداخل إسم العنصر مع الأسماء الأخرى لبعض العناصر مثل البورون, ولكن في نهاية الأمر تم إقرار الإسم عام 1997.

Two groups claimed discovery of the element. Evidence of bohrium was first reported in 1976 by a Soviet research team led by Yuri Oganessian, in which targets of bismuth-209 and lead-208 were bombarded with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 and manganese-55, respectively. Two activities, one with a half-life of one to two milliseconds, and the other with an approximately five-second half-life, were seen. Since the ratio of the intensities of these two activities was constant throughout the experiment, it was proposed that the first was from the isotope bohrium-261 and that the second was from its daughter dubnium-257. Later, the dubnium isotope was corrected to dubnium-258, which indeed has a five-second half-life (dubnium-257 has a one-second half-life); however, the half-life observed for its parent is much shorter than the half-lives later observed in the definitive discovery of bohrium at Darmstadt in 1981. The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) concluded that while dubnium-258 was probably seen in this experiment, the evidence for the production of its parent bohrium-262 was not convincing enough.

In 1981, a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research (GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 to produce 5 atoms of the isotope bohrium-262:

20983Bi + 54Error in Template:ProtonsForElement: unknown element chromium.Cr → 262Error in Template:ProtonsForElement: unknown element bohrium.Bh + n

This discovery was further substantiated by their detailed measurements of the alpha decay chain of the produced bohrium atoms to previously known isotopes of fermium and californium. The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) recognised the GSI collaboration as official discoverers in their 1992 report.

 Proposed names

In September 1992, the German group suggested the name nielsbohrium with symbol Ns to honor the Danish physicist Niels Bohr. The Soviet scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia had suggested this name be given to element 105 (which was finally called dubnium) and the German team wished to recognise both Bohr and the fact that the Dubna team had been the first to propose the cold fusion reaction, and simultaneously help to solve the controversial problem of the naming of element 105. The Dubna team agreed with the German group's naming proposal for element 107.

There was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 104 to 106 were to be called; the IUPAC adopted unnilseptium (symbol Uns) as a temporary, systematic element name for this element. In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named bohrium, not nielsbohrium, since there was no precedent for using a scientist's complete name in the naming of an element. This was opposed by the discoverers as there was some concern that the name might be confused with boron and in particular the distinguishing of the names of their respective oxyanions, bohrate and borate. The matter was handed to the Danish branch of IUPAC which, despite this, voted in favour of the name bohrium, and thus the name bohrium for element 107 was recognized internationally in 1997; the names of the respective oxyanions of boron and bohrium remain unchanged despite their homophony.

 Isotopes

المقالة الرئيسية: Isotopes of bohrium

قائمة نظائر bohrium

النظير	Half-life		نمط الانحلال	سنة الاكتشاف	تفاعل الاكتشاف
	Value	ref

Bohrium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Twelve different isotopes of bohrium have been reported with atomic masses 260–262, 264–267, 270–272, 274, and 278, one of which, bohrium-262, has a known metastable state. All of these but the unconfirmed ²⁷⁸Bh decay only through alpha decay, although some unknown bohrium isotopes are predicted to undergo spontaneous fission.

The lighter isotopes usually have shorter half-lives; half-lives of under 100 ms for ²⁶⁰Bh, ²⁶¹Bh, ²⁶²Bh, and ^262mBh were observed. ²⁶⁴Bh, ²⁶⁵Bh, ²⁶⁶Bh, and ²⁷¹Bh are more stable at around 1 s, and ²⁶⁷Bh and ²⁷²Bh have half-lives of about 10 s. The heaviest isotopes are the most stable, with ²⁷⁰Bh and ²⁷⁴Bh having measured half-lives of about 2.4 min and 40 s respectively, and the even heavier unconfirmed isotope ²⁷⁸Bh appearing to have an even longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.

The most proton-rich isotopes with masses 260, 261, and 262 were directly produced by cold fusion, those with mass 262 and 264 were reported in the decay chains of meitnerium and roentgenium, while the neutron-rich isotopes with masses 265, 266, 267 were created in irradiations of actinide targets. The five most neutron-rich ones with masses 270, 271, 272, 274, and 278 (unconfirmed) appear in the decay chains of ²⁸²Nh, ²⁸⁷Mc, ²⁸⁸Mc, ²⁹⁴Ts, and ²⁹⁰Fl respectively. The half-lives of bohrium isotopes range from about ten milliseconds for ^262mBh to about one minute for ²⁷⁰Bh and ²⁷⁴Bh, extending to about 11.5 minutes for the unconfirmed ²⁷⁸Bh, which may have one of the longest half-lives among reported superheavy nuclides.

 Predicted properties

Very few properties of bohrium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that bohrium (and its parents) decays very quickly. A few singular chemistry-related properties have been measured, but properties of bohrium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.

 Chemical

Bohrium is the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest member of group 7 in the periodic table, below manganese, technetium and rhenium. All the members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of +7 and the state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus bohrium is expected to form a stable +7 state. Technetium also shows a stable +4 state whilst rhenium exhibits stable +4 and +3 states. Bohrium may therefore show these lower states as well. The higher +7 oxidation state is more likely to exist in oxyanions, such as perbohrate, BhO−4, analogous to the lighter permanganate, pertechnetate, and perrhenate. Nevertheless, bohrium(VII) is likely to be unstable in aqueous solution, and would probably be easily reduced to the more stable bohrium(IV).

The lighter group 7 elements are known to form volatile heptoxides M₂O₇ (M = Mn, Tc, Re), so bohrium should also form the volatile oxide Bh₂O₇. The oxide should dissolve in water to form perbohric acid, HBhO₄. Rhenium and technetium form a range of oxyhalides from the halogenation of the oxide. The chlorination of the oxide forms the oxychlorides MO₃Cl, so BhO₃Cl should be formed in this reaction. Fluorination results in MO₃F and MO₂F₃ for the heavier elements in addition to the rhenium compounds ReOF₅ and ReF₇. Therefore, oxyfluoride formation for bohrium may help to indicate eka-rhenium properties. Since the oxychlorides are asymmetrical, and they should have increasingly large dipole moments going down the group, they should become less volatile in the order TcO₃Cl > ReO₃Cl > BhO₃Cl: this was experimentally confirmed in 2000 by measuring the enthalpies of adsorption of these three compounds. The values are for TcO₃Cl and ReO₃Cl are −51 kJ/mol and −61 kJ/mol respectively; the experimental value for BhO₃Cl is −77.8 kJ/mol, very close to the theoretically expected value of −78.5 kJ/mol.

 Physical and atomic

Bohrium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and assume a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (^c/_a = 1.62), similar to its lighter congener rhenium. Early predictions by Fricke estimated its density at 37.1 g/cm³, but newer calculations predict a somewhat lower value of 26–27 g/cm³.

The atomic radius of bohrium is expected to be around 128 pm. Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Bh⁺ ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of [Rn] 5f¹⁴ 6d⁴ 7s², giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron, which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues manganese and technetium. Rhenium, on the other hand, follows its heavier congener bohrium in giving up a 5d electron before a 6s electron, as relativistic effects have become significant by the sixth period, where they cause among other things the yellow color of gold and the low melting point of mercury. The Bh²⁺ ion is expected to have an electron configuration of [Rn] 5f¹⁴ 6d³ 7s²; in contrast, the Re²⁺ ion is expected to have a [Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d⁵ configuration, this time analogous to manganese and technetium. The ionic radius of hexacoordinate heptavalent bohrium is expected to be 58 pm (heptavalent manganese, technetium, and rhenium having values of 46, 57, and 53 pm respectively). Pentavalent bohrium should have a larger ionic radius of 83 pm.

 Experimental chemistry

In 1995, the first report on attempted isolation of the element was unsuccessful, prompting new theoretical studies to investigate how best to investigate bohrium (using its lighter homologs technetium and rhenium for comparison) and removing unwanted contaminating elements such as the trivalent actinides, the group 5 elements, and polonium.

In 2000, it was confirmed that although relativistic effects are important, bohrium behaves like a typical group 7 element. A team at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) conducted a chemistry reaction using six atoms of ²⁶⁷Bh produced in the reaction between ²⁴⁹Bk and ²²Ne ions. The resulting atoms were thermalised and reacted with a HCl/O₂ mixture to form a volatile oxychloride. The reaction also produced isotopes of its lighter homologues, technetium (as ¹⁰⁸Tc) and rhenium (as ¹⁶⁹Re). The isothermal adsorption curves were measured and gave strong evidence for the formation of a volatile oxychloride with properties similar to that of rhenium oxychloride. This placed bohrium as a typical member of group 7. The adsorption enthalpies of the oxychlorides of technetium, rhenium, and bohrium were measured in this experiment, agreeing very well with the theoretical predictions and implying a sequence of decreasing oxychloride volatility down group 7 of TcO₃Cl > ReO₃Cl > BhO₃Cl.

2 Bh + 3 O 2 + 2 HCl → 2 BhO 3Cl + H 2

The longer-lived heavy isotopes of bohrium, produced as the daughters of heavier elements, offer advantages for future radiochemical experiments. Although the heavy isotope ²⁷⁴Bh requires a rare and highly radioactive berkelium target for its production, the isotopes ²⁷²Bh, ²⁷¹Bh, and ²⁷⁰Bh can be readily produced as daughters of more easily produced moscovium and nihonium isotopes.

 Bibliography

• Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; et al. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties". Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.
• Beiser, A. (2003). Concepts of modern physics (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-244848-1. OCLC 48965418.
• Hoffman, D. C.; Ghiorso, A.; Seaborg, G. T. (2000). The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-78-326244-1.
• Kragh, H. (2018). From Transuranic to Superheavy Elements: A Story of Dispute and Creation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-75813-8.
• Zagrebaev, V.; Karpov, A.; Greiner, W. (2013). "Future of superheavy element research: Which nuclei could be synthesized within the next few years?". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 420 (1): 012001. arXiv:1207.5700. Bibcode:2013JPhCS.420a2001Z. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/420/1/012001. ISSN 1742-6588. S2CID 55434734.

 وصلات خارجية

• Media related to بوريوم at Wikimedia Commons
• Bohrium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)